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LIBRARY 

OF  THE 

University  of  California. 

GIFT   OF" 

Mrs.  SARAH  P.  WALSWORTH. 

Received  October,  i8g4, 
zAccessions  No.Sj^S^^^  •      Class  No. 


JEWISH     NATION; 


CONTAINING  AN  ACCOUNT  OF  THEIR 

MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS,  RITES  AND  WORSHIP, 
LAWS  AND  POLITY. 


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W&ittt  WumerousTjmuljicatiSe  iEnflrabfufls. 


REVISED   BY   D.   P.   KIDDER, 


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PUBLISHED    BY   LANE  &  SCOTT, 

FOR  THE  SUNDAY-SCHOOL  UNION  OF  THE  METHODIST  EPISCOPAL 
CHURCH,  200  MULBERRY-STREET. 

JOSEPH    LONGKING,    PRINTER. 
1850. 


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EDITOR'S   PREFACE 


The  works  on  Jewish  customs  and  Scripture 
antiquities  hitherto  pubUshed,  have  usually 
been  either  very  meager  or  very  voluminous 
and  expensive.  A  convenient  manual  like 
the  present,  embracing  the  best  information 
of  modern  times,  and  illustrated  by  good  en- 
gravings, had  long  been  needed  by  practical 
students  of  the  Bible. 

The  present  volume  having  been  issued 
by  the  Religious  Tract  Society,  to  meet  this 
want  in  England,  has  been  found  highly 
worthy  of  reproduction  for  a  similar  purpose 
in  America.  The  revision  has  been  chiefly 
confined  to  the  omission  of  some  irrelevant 
matter,  and  the  alteration  of  such  expressions 
as  were  adapted  to  English  readers  only. 

The  "Jewish  Nation,"  as  represented  in 
this  work,  may  be  confidently  commended 
to  the  attention  of  ministers  of  the  Gospel, 
Sunday-school  teachers,  and  Christian  fami- 
lies. 

New-YorJc,  January,  1850. 


LIST   OF    ENGRAVINGS. 


The  seven-branched  candlestick,  and  other  articles  used  in  the  Jewish 

Temple  worship Page  7 

Brickmakers  in  Egypt 12 

Mode  of  reclining  at  table 18 

Skin  bottles 21 

Polish  Jews 22 

Modes  of  bowing,  doing  homage,  and  worship  in  the  East 31 

Putting  off  the  shoes 34 

Women  grinding  at  the  mill 39 

Small  hand-mill 41 

Eastern  oven , 42 

Persians  at  breakfast 50 

Washing  before  meals 52 

Shepherd  and  his  flock 61 

Eastern  women  at  a  well 62 

Egyptian  v/heat 68 

Ancient  reapers 69 

Treading  out  the  corn 70 

Carts  and  implements  used  by  the  Saxons 71 

The  Mount  of  Olives  ...   76 

Small  domestic  loom  of  the  East 77 

The  potter  at  work 78 

Woman  spinning 79 

Egyptian  loom 81 

Roman  coin. 85 

The  wild  ass 95 

Stone  of  witness 105 

Ancient  musical  instruments 113 

An  ancient  foot-race 121 

Arab  scholars  writing  on  sand 123 

Mesh-als,  or  lamps 127 

Mourning  for  the  dead 135 

Rock-tomb  in  the  sides  of  the  Valley  of  Jehoshaphat 140 

Abel  offering  sacrifice 142 

Putting  up  the  tabernacle 158 

The  court  of  the  tabernacle 159 

St.  Paul  addressing  the  people 171 

Large  altar  for  sacrifices 174 

Molten  sea  and  brazen  oxen 175 

The  high  priest 191 

Sacrifices  in  the  court  of  the  tabernacle 201 

The  meat-offering 205 

Modern  Jerusalem 208 

First-fruits  offered 213 

The  first-fruits  carried  up  to  Jerusalem 214 

The  leper  pronounced  clean 228 

A  Jewish  priest  at  prayer 232 

.Tews  teaching  children  the  law 245 

A  Jew  lighting  the  Sabbath  candle 255 

A  school  of  the  prophets 264 

Offering  children  in  sacrifice  to  Moloch 295 

Proclaiming  the  Jubilee 311 

Jewish  Sabbath  meal 329 

Manslayer  fleeing  to  a  city  of  refuge 334 

Elisha  multiplying  the  widow's  oil 343 

A  witness  holding  up  his  right  hand 370 

Stoning  to  death 377 

Eastern  soldiers 385 

Ancient  armor 387 

Eastern  gleaners 394 

Scribes  and  Pharisees 400 


CONTENTS. 


I. — THE  MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS  OF  THE  JEWS. 

CHAP.  PAGE 

Inti-oduction 7 

I.  Habitations — Tents  and  Houses 9 

II.  Furniture 17 

III.  Dress,  clothing,  and  ornaments     .         .         .         .         .22 

IV.  Salutations — Visiting — Early  rising       .         .         .         .31 
V.  Food — Fuel — Water  and   other   drinks — Manner  of 

eating         .         .         . 38 

VI.  Traveling 54 

VII.  Cattle — Agriculture — Cultivation  of  the  land — Sowing 

and^harvest — Vineyards — Wine  and  fruits  .         .61 

VIII.  Manufactures — Trades — Commerce — Money — Ships    .     77 

IX.  The  fine  arts  and  images 91 

X.  Natural  history — Philosophy         .         .         .         .         .94 

XI.  Divisions  of  time  ........     96 

XII,  The  art  of  writing — Books,  and  substances  written  upon     99 
XII.*  Poetry,  music,  dancing,  and  public  amusements  .  112 

XIII.  Schools  and  education  .......   123 

XIV.  Marriages — Children 126 

XV.  Physicians — Medicines — Customs  relative  to  the  dead 

—Funerals 132 

II. — THE  RITES  AND  WORSHIP  OF  THE  JEWS. 

I.  The  three  dispensations — The  meaning  and  origin  of 

sacrifices  .........  142 

II.  Sacrifices  under  the  Patriarchal  dispensation — Places 

for  sacrifices      ........  147 

III.  The  Jewish  nation — Its  ritual  and  worship  .         .         .  155 

IV.  The  Tabernacle,  and  the  articles  therein      .         .         .   157 

V.  The  furniture  and  utensils  of  the  Tabernacle         .         .  160 
VI.  The  Temple— its  courts 166 

VII.  The  Temple— The  holy  places — Present  state  of  the  site  177 

VIII.  The  Levites — The  priests — The  high  priest  .         .  184 

JX.  The  dailjr  service  of  the  Temple  .  .         .         .195 


b  CONTENTS. 

CHAP.  PACK 

X.  The  sacrifices .  201 

XI.  The  Jewish  festivals 207 

XII.  Miscellaneous  observances — The  use  of  salt — Circum- 
cision— Laws  against  Necromancy — The  red  heifer — 

Cleansing  the  leper 222 

Tabular  view  of  the  ceremonial  law     ....  230 

XIII.  The  worship  of  prayer  and  praise         ....  232 

XIV.  Places  for  spiritual  worship — Proseuchas — Synagogues, 

and  the  synagogue  service 236 

XV.  Privatedevotionsof  the  Jews — Fasts,  public  and  private  247 

XVI.  Purifications 252 

XVII.  The  Sabbath — Festival  of   the  new  moon — Feast   of 

Trumpets   .........  255 

XVIII.  The  Prophets 263 

III. — THE  LAWS  AND  POLITY  OF  THE  JEWS. 

Introduction 271 

I.  General  character  of  the  Jewish  laws  ....  273 
II.  The  principles  of  the  judicial  law         .         .  ~     .         .  280 

III.  Slaves  and  servants      .......  285 

IV.  The  ceremonial  law 291 

V.  Vows  and  purifications 301 

VI.  The  Sabbatical  year-^The  jubilee — The  new  moons     .  308 

VII.  The  moral  laws 313 

Table  of  the  Jewish  moral  and  political  laws         .         .318 
VIII.  The  first,  second,  third,  and  fourth  Commandments      .  320 
IX.  Duties   to   fellow-creatures,   or    the  fifth,   sixth,    and 

seventh  Commandments 331 

X.  Offenses  against  property,  or  the  eighth,  ninth,  and 

tenth  Commandments 339 

XL  Jewish  Polity 349 

XII.  History  of  the  Jewish  Polity 354 

XIII.  Courts  of  Justice 365 

XIV.  Punishments  inflicted  among  the  Jews          .         .         .369 
XV.  Treaties,  Covenants,  and  Oaths 378 

XVI.  Warfare— Militaiy  affairs 384 

XVII.  Expenses  of  government 391 

XVIII.  Sects  and  orders  of  men 399 

Conclusion ,  407 


JEWISH    NATION 


BIBLE  MANNERS,  CUSTOMS,  RITES,  AND  LAWS. 


THE  SEVEN-BRANCHED    CANDLESTICK,    AND    OTHER    ARTICLES    USED    IN  THE 
JEWISH   TEMPLE  WORSHIP. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  Manners  and  Customs  of  the  ancient  Jews,  and  other 
nations  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  differed  very  much  from 
those  of  Europe  and  America  at  the  present  time.  On  this 
account  it  is  not  easy  for  a  modern  reader  to  understand 
some  passages  of  Scripture.  Hence  many  things  in  the 
Bible  seem  very  strange  to  those  who  do  not  know  the  man- 
ner in  which  people  in  the  East  lived  in  former  times.  Nor 
do  the  beauty  and  importance  of  many  texts  appear,  unless 
what  is  alluded  to  m  them  is  known. 


8  JEWISH  NATION. 

The  eastern  Manners  and  Customs  of  old  times  may  be 
explained  from  two  sources  : — 1.  From  the  ancient  writers 
of  other  nations,  who  have  described  the  customs  of  former 
times.  Their  works  contain  many  passages  which  confirm 
the  accounts  given  in  the  Bible,  and  nothing  which  really 
contradicts  them  when  carefully  examined.  Learned  men 
have  clearly  proved  this.  Nor  should  we  forget,  that  a 
great  part  of  the  Old  Testament  was  written  many  hundred 
years  before  any  other  book  now  in  existence. — 2.  Much 
also  may  be  learned  from  modern  travelers,  who  have  vi- 
sited the  places  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  and  other  countries 
of  the  East.  People  live  there  now  very  much  in  the  same 
manner  as  they  did  in  the  times  about  which  we  read  in 
the  Bible,  which  were  from  two  to  six  thousand  years  ago. 
The  books  of  eastern  travelers  now  are  full  of  such  state- 
ments ;  many  are  given  in  this  volume,  but  they  are  only  a 
small  part  of  what  might  have  been  stated.  Perhaps  some 
travelers  have  gone  too  far,  and  mention  as  illustrations 
of  the  Bible  what  are  not  really  such. 

Also  the  Rites  and  Ceremonies  of  the  Jewish  religion 
are  too  often  carelessly  passed  by,  from  ignorance  as  to 
many  of  the  particulars,  which  are  very  interesting  when 
explained  by  the  customs  of  the  ancient  Jews,  or  by  the 
accounts  of  their  own  writers  who  hved  about  the  time  of 
our  Saviour. 

The  Laws  and  Polity,  or  the  pohtical  institutions  of 
the  Jews,  contain  much  that  is  very  important  to  be  known, 
but  which  is  not  noticed  by  common  readers;  here,  also,  a 
knowledge  of  the  manners  and  customs  is  of  much  use.  All 
these  things  will  be  found  interesting  when  inquired  into. 
The  design  of  this  volume  is  to  induce  the  reader  so  to 
study  his  Bible ;  and  all  who  read  it  should  examine  the 
texts  noticed.  It  would  have  been  easy  to  refer  to 
a  great  many  other  texts,  but  most  who  read  this  book 
can  look  at  a  Concordance,  or,  if  young  persons,  it  is  a  good 
exercise  to  examine  for  themselves,  and  thus  to  be  led  to 
search  the  Scriptures.  For  this  reason,  as  well  as  to  save 
space,  the  texts  are  seldom  given  at  great  length  in  this 
volume.  If  that  had  been  done,  the  book  would  have  been 
doubled  in  size  and  cost,  without  any  advantage  in  return  ; 
while  any  plan  that  prevents  the  examining  of  the  whole 
Bible  is  by  no  means  desirable. 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS. 


PART  I. 

MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS 

OF  THE  JEWS  AND   OTHER  NATIONS  MENTIONED  IN  THE  BIBLE. 


CHAPTER  I. 
HABITATIONS— TENTS    AND  HOUSES. 

TENTS. 

When  Adam  and  Eve  were  driven  from  Paradise,  they  did 
not  find  houses  ready  built.  They  might,  probably,  for  a 
time,  have  taken  shelter  in  a  cave ;  though  we  read  very  early 
of  Cain  building  a  city.  Gen.  iv,  IV.  Their  abodes  would  be 
improved  by  degrees.  Jabal,  the  son  of  Lamech,  is  thought 
to  have  invented  tents.  He  is  called  the  "  father  of  such 
as  dwell  in  tents,"  Gen.  iv,  20. 

All  these  dwellings  were  destroyed  by  the  flood.  Gen. 
vii,  19. 

After  the  earth  was  dried,  and  Noah  came  out  of  the  ark, 
he  seems,  for  some  time  at  least,  to  have  lived  in  a  tent, 
Gen.  ix,  21.  This  sort  of  dwelling  would  be  the  easiest  to 
make.  Even  now,  tents  are  very  common  in  the  East,  espe- 
cially for  travelers.  But  it  was  not  long  before  men  began 
again  to  build  houses  and  cities.  Gen.  xi,  4,  5. 

People  also  often  lived  in  caves.  They  sometimes  hol- 
lowed out  rooms  in  the  cliffs  and  rocks,  to  serve  for  conceal- 
ment as  well  as  for  dwellings,  Judg.  vi,  2 ;  Heb.  xi,  38. 
David  often  hid  himself  in  caves,  1  Samuel  xxii,  1 ;  2  Sam. 
xxiii,  13.  Such  places  may  be  seen  even  in  England. 
Many  of  these  caves  and  under-ground  places  are  to  be 
found  in  Egypt  and  the  East ;  they  are  described  by  Ste- 
phens and  others.  Buckingham  found  a  hundred  people 
at  one  place  in  Arabia,  living  in  caves  or  grottoes  hollowed 
in  the  rock.  Some  of  these  excavations  are  very  large,  and 
have  many  rooms.  But,  in  general,  people  lived  either  in 
tents  or  houses. 

1* 


10  JEWISH   NATION. 

The  patriarchs,  Abraham,  Isaac,  and  Jacob,  lived  in  tents 
while  in  the  land  of  Canaan,  as  we  read  in  the  book  of 
Genesis.  They  are  spoken  of  (Heb.  xi,  9)  as  "  dwelling 
in  tabernacles,"  that  is,  tents.  The  hfe  of  a  traveler  in  the 
East  still  illustrates  this  text.  One  says  : — "  It  is  a  life  of  con- 
stant dependence  and  faith  :  when  the  tent  is  struck  in  the 
morning,  the  traveler  knows  not  where  it  will  be  pitched  at 
noon  or  evening ;  Avhether  it  is  to  be  beside  the  palms  and 
springs  of  water,  or  in  solitude  and  sand."  The  patriarchs 
had  more  than  one  tent,  probably  a  considerable  number, 
and  the  women  lived  separate,  as  is  now  the  custom  among 
the  rich  Arabs.  Thus  we  read  of  Rebekah  having  Sarah's 
tent,  Gen.  xxiv,  67.  The  tents  of  Rachel,  Leah,  and  Jacob, 
also  were  separate,  Gen.  xxxi,  33.  Or  the  tent  often  is 
divided  into  two  parts,  one  for  the  women,  where  they  cook 
and  attend  to  domestic  concerns.  Irby  and  Mangles  de- 
scribe them  as  retiring  to  that  part  after  placing  mats  for 
the  guests,  and  then  preparing  food  as  a  matter  of  course. 

The  tents  were  generally  put  up  under  the  shade  of  large 
trees.  Abraham's  tent  was  under  a  tree  in  the  plains  of 
Mamre,  Gen.  xviii,  1,  4 ;  and  Deborah,  the  prophetess, 
dwelt  vmder  a  palm-tree  in  Mount  Ephraim,  Judg.  iv,  5. 
In  the  East,  the  people  like  to  have  trees  near  their  dwell- 
ings, both  for  shade  and  shelter.  From  1  Kings  iv,  25,  we 
may  conclude  this  was  usual  in  the  land  of  Judea,  even 
when  they  lived  in  houses.  The  trees  generally  planted 
for  this  purpose  were  vines  and  fig-trees,  which  would  grow 
up  against  the  walls,  and  over  the  roof,  as  they  now  do  about 
our  cottages.  These  trees  supplied  grapes  and  figs  ;  which 
were  used  for  food,  and  the  branches  of  the  ^dne  that  did  not 
bear  fruit  were  used  for  fuel  to  burn.  This  is  referred  to  by 
Christ,  (John  xv,  6,)  when  he  describes  himself  as  the  Vine, 
and  his  people  as  the  fruitful  branches  ;  and  those  who  do 
not  love  him,  as  the  withered  branches  which  were  cast 
into  the  fire. 

The  tents  of  the  Arabs  usually  are  black,  or  of  a  very 
dark  color ;  the  tents  of  Kedar  were  so  in  former  times, 
Sol.  Song  i,  5  ;  a  few  are  striped.  The  master  of  the  family 
is  often  seen  sitting  in  the  door  of  the  tent  in  the  heat  of 
the  day,  as  is  described  Gen.  xviii,  1.  The  tents  are  of  all 
sorts,  varying  in  size  and  shape  according  to  the  means  of 
the  owner,  from  a  mere  cloth  of  goats'  hair,  camels'  hair. 


MANNERS  AND   CUSTOMS.  11 

or  coarse  wool,  thrown  over  a  few  sticks,  mucli  worse  than 
the  gipsy  tents  in  England,  to  large  habitations  divided 
into  several  rooms,  separated  by  fine  curtains.  In  the  bet- 
ter tents,  a  curtain  of  needlework  is  hung  at  the  door.  A 
king  of  Persia  had  a  tent  made  with  cloth  of  gold  and  other 
expensive  materials,  that  cost  $700,000. 

The  tents  were  fixed  by  stakes  and  cords,  and  could  be 
enlarged  by  lengthening  the  cords,  strengthening  the  stakes, 
and  adding  more  covermgs,  Isa.  liv,  2.  The  cords  are  fas- 
tened to  pins  driven  in  with  a  mallet,  as  in  Jael's  tent, 
Judg.  iv,  21.  Buckingham  describes  the  tent  of  a  sheikh  sup- 
ported by  twenty-four  poles.  They  are  easily  removed,  the 
tent-pins  are  plucked  up,  the  curtains  folded,  the  poles  taken 
down,  and,  in  a  few  minutes,  some  holes  in  the  ground,  a  heap 
of  ashes,  and  the  marks  of  feet  of  men  and  beasts,  and  per- 
haps of  camels'  knees,  are  the  only  traces  left  of  their  habi- 
tations. When  people  travel,  they  always,  if  they  can,  fix 
their  tents  near  some  river,  fountain,  or  well ;  see  1  Sam. 
xxix,  1  ;  xxx,  21.  The  tents,  particularly  when  many  are 
near  together,  much  enliven  a  prospect,  as  Balaam  said. 
Num.  xxiv,  6. 

The  Israelites,  in  the  wilderness,  lived  in  tents  for  forty 
years.  Many  of  these  were  what  we  should  call  booths, 
made  of  the  branches  of  trees.  That  they  might  remember 
this,  the  feast  of  tabernacles  was  to  be  kept.  Read  about 
it,  Lev.  xxiii,  39-42.  Such  a  booth  Jonah  made,  when  he 
went  and  sat  on  the  east  side  of  Nineveh,  to  see  what  would 
happen  to  the  city.  Without  some  such  shelter  it  is  im- 
possible to  endure  the  hot  mid-day  sun  of  those  countries. 
Thus  the  shepherds  have  their  tents  (Isa.  xxxviii,  12)  speed- 
ily and  suddenly  removed.  If  travelers  have  no  tents,  they 
put  some  of  their  garments  upon  sticks,  and  creep  under 
them ;  or  get  into  the  shade  of  a  rock,  or  even  pile  up  stones. 
Buckingham  describes  the  efifects  of  a  storm  as  beating 
down  all  the  tents  of  a  large  encampment,  and  many  kids 
and  lambs,  and  even  infants,  perishing  from  the  exposure. 
Such  a  storm  is  described  Isa.  xxviii,  2,  when  a  more 
secure  covert  than  a  tent  was  needful,  Isa.  iv,  6. 

HOUSES. 

The  houses  of  the  rich  were  built  with  stone  or  bricks ; 
but  those  of  the  poor  were  of  wood,  or  more  frequently  of 


12 


JEWISH  NATION. 


mud,  as  they  are  to  this  day  in  many  parts  of  the  East,  and 
in  some  villages  in  England.  Houses  built  of  mud  are  not 
well  fitted  to  withstand  the  torrents,  which  at  times  flow 
from  the  mountains  of  Palestine.  This  is  alluded  to  by 
Christ,  in  Matt,  vii,  26,  27.  Shaw  saw  some  houses  fall  after 
a  shower  of  rain  that  lasted  only  two  hours  ;  a  few  years  ago, 
between  three  and  four  hundred  houses  were  washed  down 
at  Alexandria,  in  one  night  of  storm  and  rain.  Thieves  also 
could  easily  dig  or  break  through  mud  walls ;  to  which  the 
Saviour  refers,  when  he  exhorts  his  disciples  not  to  lay  up 
treasures  where  thieves  break  through  and  steal.  Such 
robberies  are  very  frequent  in  the  East  Indies  at  the  present 
day.  The  holes  or  cracks  in  these  walls  afford  a  harbor 
for  serpents:  see  Amos  v,  19. 

The  Egyptian  bricks  were  made  of  mud,  clay,  and  straw 
chopped  in  short  lengths,  mixed  together ;  generally  baked 
in  the  sun,  not  burned  in  kilns.  These  were  the  bricks  the 
Israelites  were  employed  in  making ;  so  they  needed  the 


BRICKMAKERS    IN    EGYPT. 
From  Ancient  Egyptian  Paintings. 


straw  which  Pharaoh  forbade  his  officers  to  give  them, 
Exod.  V,  T.  Morier  saw  men  thus  compelled  to  labor  in 
making  bricks  and  building  in  Persia.  Bricks  of  this  sort 
are  found  among  the  ruins  in  Egypt  and  other  eastern 
countries.  In  some  places,  they  still  remain  very  hard, 
while,  where  less  baked,  they  have  moldered  away,  and 


MANNERS  AND    CUSTOMS.  13 

other  houses  have  been  built  upon  the  ruins  or  rubbish  of 
the  first,  as  Jowett  describes,  which  may  explain  Jer.  xxx, 
18,  and  illustrate  Job  iv,  19.  Very  large  stones  were 
used  in  some  of  the  public  buildings.  At  Baalbec  are  some 
fifty-eight  feet  long,  and  twelve  in  thickness.  Robinson 
measured  one  in  the  ancient  foundation  of  the  temple  at 
Jerusalem,  above  thirty  feet  long,  and  six  and  a  half  broad. 
Many  houses  in  Jerusalem,  and  other  cities,  are  roofed  with 
stone.     Burkhardt  describes  doors  of  stone. 

The  rich  people  in  the  East  build  their  houses  very 
strong,  particularly  when  they  live  in  the  country  away 
from  towns.  This  is  necessary,  that  they  may  be  safe  from 
robbers.  Thus  their  houses  might  often  be  called  castles. 
It  was  the  same  in  our  own  country  some  hundred  years 
ago,  as  may  be  seen  in  ruins  which  remain. 

In  the  eastern  cities,  the  larger  houses  were  usually  very 
similar  in  form,  though  different  in  size ;  the  same  manner 
of  building  seems  to  have  been  continued  from  very  early 
times.  Often  several  families  inhabited  the  same  house. 
The  streets  are  generally  very  narrow,  the  better  to  shade 
the  inhabitants  from  the  sun ;  so  narrow  that  two  carriages 
cannot  pass  each  other.  Usually,  only  the  door  of  the 
porch,  and  one  latticed  window  or  balcony,  open  upon  the 
street.  When  any  alarm  takes  place,  or  any  remarkable 
spectacle  is  to  be  seen,  the  people  hasten  to  the  house-tops, 
Isaiah  xxii,  1.  On  entering  a  large  house,  you  pass 
through  a  porch,  with  benches  on  each  side,  where  the 
master  receives  visitors,  and  transacts  business ;  for  stran- 
gers are  seldom  admitted  farther. 

The  court  is  open  to  the  weather,  and  usually  has  galle- 
ries round  it,  like  those  in  old  inns.  When  a  number  of 
persons  meet  at  a  house  for  a  feast,  or  on  any  similar  occa- 
sion, they  usually  assemble  in  the  court;  the  ground  is 
covered  with  mats  and  carpets ;  and  an  awning  is  generally 
stretched  over  their  heads,  to  screen  them  from  the  sun  or 
the  rain.  In  the  courts  of  the  houses  our  Saviour  and  his 
apostles  often  instructed  those  who  came  to  hear.  This  ex- 
plains the  expression,  "  into  the  midst,"  (Luke  v,  19,)  where 
Christ  was  sitting  when  the  man  sick  of  the  palsy  was 
brought  to  him.  The  covering  above  mentioned  is  what  is 
meant  by  the  roof  that  was  removed  to  let  the  sick  man 
down  from  the  top  of  the  house;  for  the  word  translated 


14  JEWISH  NATION. 

tiling  or  roof,  means  also  a  covering  such  as  is  just  described. 
This  may  explain  Psa.  civ,  2  :  "  Who  stretchest  out  the  hea- 
vens like  a  curtain."  Round  the  court  are  a  number  of 
rooms ;  the  buildings  are  sometimes  two  or  three  stories 
high,  with  a  gallery  to  each.  The  inner  chamber  is  alluded 
to,  1  Kings  XX,  30 ;  xxii,  25.  The  bed-chamber,  (2  Chron. 
xxii,  11,)  where  Jehoshabeath  hid  Joash,  was  not  like  our 
sleeping-rooms,  but  a  room  where  mattresses,  or  beds, 
were  stored. 

Sometimes  there  is  a  well  in  the  court,  as  in  the  house 
at  Bahurim,  2  Sam.  xvii,  18  ;  in  handsome  modern  houses 
often  there  are  fountains.  In  some  places  there  are 
rooms  under  ground  for  the  hot  days.  In  the  court  is  also 
an  awning,  or  "  roof,"  under  which  the  family  in  sultry 
weather  repose,  but  it  is  not  the  large  covering  stretched 
across  the  whole  court  on  such  an  occasion  as  that  mentioned 
Luke  V.  Under  the  adjoining  arcades  is  a  staircase,  by 
which  the  flat  roofs  are  reached.  Towards  the  street  there 
is  generally  only  a  range  of  blank  wall,  perhaps  with  a  few 
small  openings,  so  as  not  to  attract  notice  by  a  splen- 
did front. 

The  tops  of  the  houses  in  the  East  are  always  flat ;  they 
are  covered  with  plaster,  and  layers  of  reeds  and  earth,  so  that 
they  form  a  terrace.  They  are  surrounded  with  low  walls, 
called  battlements,  Deut.  xxii,  8  ;  or  sometimes  with  a  sort 
of  railing,  or  latticed  work,  through  which  Ahaziah  probably 
fell  from  the  top  of  the  house,  or  from  one  of  the  upper 
galleries ;  see  2  Kings  i,  2.  Pliny  Fisk  describes  a  gallery 
faced  with  latticed  work,  at  which  a  bride  appeared,  looking 
through  the  lattice.  Cant,  ii,  9.  These  roofs,  or  terraces,  are 
used  for  many  family  purposes,  such  as  drying  linen  or  flax. 
Josh,  ii,  6,  etc. :  the  inhabitants  enjoy  the  cool  air  there  in 
the  evening,  and  converse  with  each  other  and  their  neigh- 
bors :  see  Luke  xii,  3.  Sometimes  they  were  used  as 
places  of  retirement  for  prayer,  as  is  mentioned  of  Peter, 
Acts  x,  9  ;  and  there  the  booths  were  made  for  the  feast  of 
tabernacles,  Neh.  viii,  16.  The  tops  of  the  houses  being 
flat,  the  people  could  pass  from  one  to  another  without 
going  down  into  the  street.  This  further  explains  the 
account  of  the  paralytic,  Luke  v,  1 9  ;  for  it  shows  how  the 
persons  who  carried  him  might  go  to  the  top  of  the  house 
in   which  Jesus   was  teaching.     Isaiah  (xxii,  1)  describes 


MANNERS  AND    CUSTOMS.  15 

the  people  of  Jerusalem  as  msliing  to  the  tops  of  their  houses 
when  alarmed  by  the  enemy.  Hartley  describes  them  as 
doing  so  now  in  cases  of  fire.  Morier,  and  other  travelers 
in  the  East,  when  passing  on  their  journeys  at  an  early  hour, 
observed  people  thus  sleeping  on  the  roof,  or  beginning  to 
set  about  the  duties  of  the  day.  Paxton  noticed  huts  of 
reeds  on  the  houses  at  Bey  rout,  in  which  the  inhabitants 
slept.  At  Safet,  a  town  built  on  the  side  of  a  hill,  the  flat 
roofs  of  one  row  of  houses  form  the  roadway  of  a  higher 
range  of  buildings. 

The  stairs  were  often  on  the  outside  of  the  houses,  so 
that  a  person  could  descend  at  once  into  the  street,  without 
going  into  the  house,  which  explains  our  Lord's  command. 
Matt,  xxiv,  17.  It  is  very  common  for  people,  at  this  day, 
to  sleep  on  the  roofs  of  their  houses  in  the  summer  months. 
The  Enghsh  consul  was  sleeping  thus  at  the  time  of  the 
great  earthquake  at  Aleppo,  and  he  ran  down  into  the  street 
when  he  felt  the  shock,  without  going  through  the  house. 

The  upper  rooms  were,  and  are  at  the  present  time,  gene- 
rally used  as  the  principal  apartments.  Such  a  room  vras 
prepared  for  our  Saviour  and  his  disciples,  for  the  passover. 
In  such  a  reom  St.  Paul  was  preaching  at  Troas,  when 
Eutychus  was  overcome  with  sleep  and  the  heat,  there  being 
many  lights :  the  windows  being  open,  he  fell  from  the 
third  loft,  or  story,  into  the  street.  The  windows  sometimes 
project  and  overhang  the  street.  Jowett  describes  such 
apartments. 

In  building  houses,  large  nails,  or  pins,  were  fixed  in  the 
walls,  alluded  to  Isa.  xxii,  23  ;  Ezra  ix,  8  ;  on  which  various 
articles  were  hung.  "Wilson  describes  such  at  Damascus. 
The  houses  are  sometimes  very  beautifully  fitted  up  and 
finished,  the  beams  of  valuable  wood,  (Cant,  i,  17,)  perhaps 
carved  or  ornamented  with  ivory,  as  that  of  Ahab,  1  Kings 
xxii,  39. 

When  the  house  was  finished,  and  ready  to  be  inhabited, 
it  was  usual  to  celebrate  the  event  with  rejoicing,  and  to 
entreat  the  Divine  blessing  and  protection :  this  is  alluded 
to,  Deut.  XX,  5.  Psalm  xxx  is  stated  to  have  been  written 
for  the  dedication  of  the  house  of  David. 

When  mankind  began  to  multiply  upon  the  earth,  vio- 
lence and  wickedness  increased  ;  they  found  themselves  less 
safe  in  their  tents  and  separate  dwellings,  and  began  to  live 


16  JEVflSH   NATION. 

together  in  numbers,  that  they  might  protect  each  other. 
The  necessity  for  Hving  close  together  led  them  to  build 
their  houses  with  more  than  one  story.  Thus  cities  and 
towers  began  to  be  built.  In  Num.  xiii,  28,  we  read  of 
the  cities  of  the  Canaanites  ;  they  were  very  numerous,  and 
strongly  fortified  with  walls.  "  Walled  up  to  heaven," 
Deut.  i,  28.  These  cities  were  very  different  in  size  ;  most  of 
them  probably  contained  only  a  few  houses  or  huts  sur- 
rounded by  a  ditch,  with  a  wall  or  bank  of  earth,  behind 
which  the  inhabitants  could  stand  and  throw  stones  or  darts 
at  those  who  came  to  attack  them.  Others  were  larger, 
and,  as  Jericho,  (Josh,  vi,)  had  high  and  strong  walls.  The 
fenced  cities,  as  they  are  often  called  in  the  Bible,  were 
very  numerous;  and  Jerasalem,  Babylon,  Samaria,  Tyre, 
Ashdod,  and  others,  could  not  be  taken  till  after  long 
sieges.  Houses  were  built  upon  these  walls.  Josh,  ii,  15  ; 
Acts  ix,  25. 

The  Pyramids  of  Egypt  are  very  large  piles  of  building. 
In  one  of  them,  passages  and  halls  have  been  discovered ; 
it  is  large  enough  to  contain  several  hundred  other  rooms. 
The  largest  of  these  piles  are  built  of  stone  ;  but  there  are 
some  built  with  the  bricks  used  in  Egypt,  such  as  the  Israel- 
ites were  tasked  to  make  ;  see  Exodus  i,  14. 

The  streets  of  eastern  cities  often  are  not  more  than  three 
or  four  feet  wide.  In  Cairo,  they  are  so  narrow  that  in 
many  places  a  person  cannot  safely  pass  a  loaded  camel. 
Many  of  them  are  very  winding,  but  that  at  Damascus  where 
Ananias  found  Saul,  was  called  Straight,  Acts  ix,  11;  and 
there  is  still  one  street  there  so  named,  about  half  a  mile  long. 
At  Smyrna,  there  is  a  street  watered  by  a  river,  with  trees 
on  each  side,  as  in  the  description  Rev.  xxii,  2.  But  the 
houses  did  not  always  stand  close  together ;  they  often  had 
large  gardens  and  fields  within  the  walls  of  the  cities  :  this 
was  the  case  with  Babylon.  It  is  supposed  that  "  the  house 
of  the  forest  of  Lebanon,"  (1  Kings  vii,  2,)  had  pleasure- 
grounds  about  it.  There  were  frequently  rooms  detached, 
like  the  prophet's  chamber,  (2  Kings  iv,  1 0,)  from  the  main 
building,  to  be  used  in  the  summer  season  ;  thus  the  summer 
parlor  of  Eglon,  Judg.  iii,  20.  And  there  were  rooms  or 
ranges  of  apartments  suited  for  each  season,  Jer.  xxxvi, 
22  ;  Amos  iii,  15. 

The  doors  of  eastern  houses  in  exposed  situations  are  often 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  17 

made  so  low,  that  a  person  cannot  enter  without  stooping. 
Burkhardt  saw  many  not  above  four  feet  in  height.  This 
is  to  keep  out  enemies;  it  explains  Pro  v.  xvii,  19.  The 
mounted  Arabs  ride  into  a  building,  if  practicable,  when 
they  attack  the  inhabitants. 

The  markets  were  places  of  importance  in  ancient  cities  : 
they  were,  perhaps,  at  first  generally  close  to  the  gates  of 
cities  without:  see  Job  xxix,  Y  ;  2  Kings  vii,  18  ;  2  Chron. 
xviii,  9  ;  but  afterwards  within  the  walls.  In  Jerusalem,  about 
the  time  of  Christ,  the  markets  were  places  of  general  resort. 
Matt,  xxiii,  7  ;  Mark  xii,  38,  etc.  People  of  the  same  trade 
lived  in  streets  by  themselves,  as  in  the  eastern  bazaars  now  ; 
thus  we  read  of  the  bakers'  street,  Jer.  xxxvii,  21.  These 
markets,  or  bazaars,  are  inclosed  with  walls ;  and  have  gates, 
which  are  shut  at  night :  the  shops  are  in  streets  or  rows 
within  them.  The  gates  of  the  cities  were  the  places  of 
general  resort.  Gen.  xxiii,  10 ;  Ruth  iv,  1  ;  Judg.  ix,  35 ; 
Job  xxix,  7  ;  Psa.  cxxvii,  5.  They  often  are  towers  or 
piles  of  building,  which  a  traveler  describes  as  pleasant  for 
the  shade,  and  the  current  of  air  through  them. 


CHAPTER    II. 

FURNITURE. 

The  walls  of  rooms  in  the  houses  of  the  higher  ranks  were 
covered  and  adorned  with  hangings  of  cloth,  silk,  or  leather, 
of  various  sorts  and  colors.  The  ceilings  and  walls  were 
often  ornamented  with  carving  and  painting,  or  gilding, 
which  is  alluded  to  Jer.  xxii,  14 ;  Hag.  i,  4  ;  or  ivory, 
Amos  iii,  15.  At  the  present  day,  the  walls  are,  in  general, 
merely  whitewashed.  The  floors  were  mostly  of  tiles  and 
plaster  ;  but  as  chairs  are  seldom  or  never  used  in  the  East, 
they  were  covered  with  carpets.  They  are  so  at  the  present 
day ;  and  the  people  sit  cross-legged,  or  rechne  at  length 
upon  them.  Many  are  in  the  habit  of  sitting  upon  their 
heels,  their  legs  being  under  them.  They  sit  so  even  in 
the  open  air,  when  they,  of  course,  gather  dust  in  their 
long  garments,  which  they  have  to  shake  off  when  they 
arise,  Isa.  Iii,  2.    Along  the  walls  were  placed  mattresses  or 


18 


JEWISH    NATION". 


MODE  OF  RECLINING  AT  TABLE. 


the  room  was  raised  higher  than  the  rest 


couches,  to  rechne  upon,  and  pillows  or  bolsters,  which  are 
mentioned  Amos  vi,  4  ;  Ezek.  xiii,  18.  Perkins  saw  nobles 
lolling  with  pillows  under  their  arms. 

One  end  of  ' 
there  the  bed,  or  rather  mattress,  was  placed  :  this  may- 
explain  2  Kings  i,  4  ;  Psa.  cxxxii,  3  ;  also  what  is  said  of 
Hezekiah,  2  Kings  xx,  2  ;  and  of  Ahab,  1  Kings  xxi,  4. 
They  both  appear  to  have  turned  their  faces  from  their 
attendants,  and  towards  the  wall,  though  from  very  diflferent 
motives  :  one  that  his  earnest  prayers  might  not  be  observed, 
the  other  to  conceal  his  disappointment. 

The  furniture  of  houses  in  the  East  always  was  very  sim- 
ple ;  in  general  it  still  is  so  ;  it  consists  of  but  two  articles. 
Chairs  were  not  used  :  they  usually  sat  on  mats  or  skins  ; 
these  also  served  for  bedding,  while  a  part  of  their  clothes 
was  used  for  a  covering.  This  explains  why  a  man  was  to 
return  his  neighbor's  garment  before  night :  see  Deut.  xxiv, 
12  ;  Exod.  xxii,  26.  The  bedding  of  the  paralytic,  (Matt. 
ix,  6,)  and  of  the  man  at  Bethesda,  (John  v,  11, 12,)  probably 
was  only  mats.  The  rich  had  carpets,  couches,  and  sofas, 
on  which  they  sat,  and  lay,  and  slept.      These  couches 


MANNERS  AND   CUSTOMS.  19 

were  often  very  splendid,  and  the  frames  ornamented, 
made  of  fine  wood  or  ivory,  Amos  vi,  4  ;  and  the  coverlids 
were  often  richly  embroidered,  Prov.  vii,  16.  But  most  of 
the  beds  were  rolled  up,  and  put  away  in  the  day-time.  In 
the  latter  times  of  the  Jewish  nation,  they  lay  or  reclined 
on  couches  while  taking  their  meals,  their  heads  towards 
the  table,  with  their  feet  in  a  contrary  direction,  as  repre- 
sented on  page  1 8.  These  particulars  explain  Amos  vi,  4  ; 
Luke  vii,  36-38  ;  John  xiii,  23  ;  and  other  passages. 

The  other  articles  of  furniture  were  but  few  in  number. 
The  furniture  of  the  prophet's  chamber,  prepared  for  him 
by  the  Shunammite,  (2  Kings  iv,  10,)  probably,  was  more 
than  usual ;  but  it  was  only  a  bed  or  couch  upon  the  floor, 
a  table,  a  stool,  and  a  candlestick  or  lamp.  Lamps  are 
constantly  used  in  the  East ;  they  are  of  clay  or  metal,  filled 
with  oil  or  grease,  vrith  cotton  or  linen  yarn  wicks.  The 
lamps  alluded  to  in  the  parable  of  the  ten  virgins,  (Matt. 
XXV,)  perhaps,  were  like  those  used  in  the  East  Indies  now 
in  marriage  processions,  a  dish,  or  lamp,  with  old  rags,  and 
a  pot  of  oil  to  pour  on  them  from  time  to  time.  Others  are 
like  what  formerly  were  called  cressets  in  England,  an  iron 
frame,  or  basket,  filled  with  flaming  wood,  or  other  fuel ; 
these  could  be  carried  by  watchmen.  We  give  an  engrav- 
ing of  these  latter  in  the  chapter  on  Marriage. 

Keys  are  mentioned,  Judg.  iii,  25  ;  Rev.  xxi.  Sometimes 
they  were  large,  so  as  to  be  rested  upon  the  shoulder,  Isa. 
xxii,  22.  A  recent  traveler  met  a  man  with  a  wooden  key 
hanging  over  his  breast,  and  an  iron  one  over  his  shoulder. 
He  describes  a  door-key  as  a  piece  of  wood  with  pegs  in  it; 
this  would  be  passed  through  a  hole  in  the  door,  (Cant,  v,  4,) 
and  fit  the  notches  of  the  bar  within.  The  entrance,  as 
already  described,  is  very  often  mean,  and  the  passage  from 
the  street  made  with  turnings,  so  that  a  passer  by  does 
not  see  into  the  house.  Buckingham  describes  the  house 
of  the  governor  of  Damascus  as  appearing  very  mean  on 
entermg,  but  within  there  was  a  gorgeous  display  of  wealth 
and  luxury. 

Pots,  pans,  and  dishes  of  earthenware  or  metal,  with  a 
few  chests  and  boxes,  supplied  the  place  of  many  articles 
with  which  our  houses  are  crowded.  The  mill  was  a  very 
necessary  article,  but  this  will  be  mentioned  in  another 
place.     The  kneading-troughs,  described  Exod.  xii,  34,  like 


20  JEWISH   NATION. 

many  of  those  used  in  the  East  in  the  present  day,  were 
small  wooden  bowls,  or  leathern  bags.  There  were  several 
sorts  of  earthenware  vessels,  of  different  shapes  and  sizes, 
from  the  smallest  size,  like  the  cnise  of  Saul, 
(1  Sam.  xxvi,  12,)  or  the  pitchers  of  the  wo- 
man of  Samaria  and  the  water-bearer,  (John 
vi,  28  ;  Mark  xiv,  13,)  and  Rebekah,  (Gen. 
xxiv,  15,)  to  the  large  ones  mentioned  John 
ii,  6.  When  Dr.  Clarke  was  at  Cana,  in 
Galilee,  a  few  years  since,  he  saw  several 
large  stone  water-pots,  like  those  just  men- 
tioned, which  contained  from  eighteen  to  twenty-seven  gal- 
lons each.  Paxton  describes  such  jugs  or  pots  at  Beyrout, 
holding  from  two  to  four  gallons  each. 

But  the  Jews,  Uke  the  modem  Arabs,  often  kept  their 
water,  wine,  milk,  and  other  liquors,  in  bottles,  or,  rather, 
bags  made  of  skins,  which  could  be  patched  and  mended 
when  old.  Such  was  the  bottle  given  to  Hagar,  Gen.  xxi, 
14.  Such  were  the  bottles  of  the  Gideonites,  Josh,  ix,  4. 
This  explains  the  allusion  of  our  Lord,  Matt,  ix,  17  ;  Mark 
ii,  22 ;  Luke  v,  37,  38  ;  which  texts  have  been  objected 
to  by  some  ignorant  infidels,  who  think  that  what  they 
daily  see  at  home  must  resemble  everything  in  former 
times,  and  in  other  countries.  If  the  new  wine  fermented 
after  it  was  put  into  the  leathern  bottles,  it  is  evident  that 
an  old  worn  skin  would  be  more  likely  to  burst  than  one 
which  was  new  and  strong.  This  was  the  sort  of  bottle 
opened  by  Jael,  Judg.  iv,  19. 

Sometimes  these  bottles  are  made  of  the  skin  of  a  kid, 
or  other  animal,  the  head,  and  legs,  and  tail  being  cut  off, 
and  the  openings  sewed  up  ;  but  more  frequently  they  are 
square  bags,  made  of  large  pieces  of  leather,  which  will  hold 
several  gallons  of  any  liquid  ;  so  that  Abigail's  two  bottles, 
(or  skins  of  wine,)  (1  Sam.  xxv,  18,)  were  not  out  of  propor- 
tion to  the  rest  of  her  present,  as  two  glass  bottles  of  the 
present  day  would  have  been.  Many  of  these  leather  bot- 
tles, or  bags,  are  made  of  the  skin  of  an  ox,  cut  square,  the 
edges  sewed  double,  and  the  whole  skin  smeared  with  grease 
on  the  outside ;  such  water-bags  sometimes  hold  sixty  gal- 
lons. The  Psalmist,  when  describing  himself  as  wasted 
with  affliction  and  trouble,  compares  himself  to  a  bottle  in 
the  smoke,  Psa.  cxix,  83.     A  leathern  bottle,  if  himg  in  the 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS. 


21 


SKIN  BOTTLES. 


smoke  for  a  length  of  time,  would  become  shriveled  and 
dried  up  ;  the  tents  of  the  Arabs  are  very  smoky,  having  no 
openings  but  the  doors. 

There  are  no  grates,  or  fireplaces  like  ours  in  the  East ; 
the  fires  are  kindled  on  flat  stones,  or  hearths.  If  fire 
is  wanted  in  the  sitting-rooms,  it  would  probably  be  char- 
coal, kindled  in  a  brazier,  or  metal  vessel,  used  for  the 
purpose.  Such  probably  was  the  fire  in  which  Jehoiakim 
burned  the  admonitory  roll,  Jer.  xxxvi,  22,  23. 

Horns  were  used  for  keeping  liquors  in,  as  the  oil  used 
for    anointing  by   Samuel,   1   Sam.  xvi,   13;    by    Zadok, 

1  Kings  i,  39.  These  were  sometimes  made  of  metal  in  the 
shape  of  a  horn,  and  also  used  for  drinking.  Cups  of  gold,  sil- 
ver, and  other  materials,  were  commonly  used,  as  Pharaoh's, 
Gen.  xl,    11 ;   Joseph's,  xhv,   2,    and  those  of  Solomon, 

2  Chron.  ix,  20.  Barzillai  supplied  cups,  2  Sam.  xvii,  28. 
Jeremiah  set  pots  and  cups  before  the  Rechabites,  Jer. 
xxxv,  5.  The  word  cup  is  often  used  figuratively,  as  for 
blessings,  Psa.  xvi,  5 ;  xxiii,  5 ;  but  more  commonly  for 
afflictions  or  sufferings,  Psa.  Ixxiii,  10  ;  Isa.  h,  17  ;  Jer.  xxv, 
17 ;  our  Lord  thus  used  the  word,  Luke  xxii,  4^*. ;  John 
xviii,  11. 


22 


JEWISH    NATION. 


POLISH    JEWS. 


CHAPTER  III. 


DRESS,  CLOTHING,  AND  ORNAMENTS. 

In  the  first  ages,  dress  was  very  simple.  God  clothed 
Adam  and  Eve  in  the  skins  of  beasts,  Gen.  iii,  21.  Skins 
have  continued  to  be  the  dress  of  savage  nations,  especially 
in  cold  climates ;  and  Burkhardt  describes  the  Bedouins 
as  wearing  leather  aprons.  After  a  time,  other  articles  were 
used  for  dress,  made  of  wool  or  flax :  see  Lev.  xiii,  47  ; 
Prov.  xxxi,  13.  At  length  garments  of  finer  linen,  and 
even  of  silk,  were  used  by  the  rich,  2  Sam.  i,  24  ;  Prov. 
xxxi,  22  ;  Luke  xvi,  19.  These  were  often  dyed  purple,  or 
crimson,  or  scarlet,  Judg.  viii,  26  ;  Dan.  v,  29;  Rev.  xviii, 
16.  Jacob  gave  Joseph  a  coat  of  many  colors,  because  he 
loved  him  more  than  his  brethren,  but  it  excited  their 
envy.  Gen.  xxxvii,  3,  4.  The  daughters  of  kings  and  rich 
persons  wore  vests,  or  garments  richly  embroidered  with 
needlework:  see  Psa.  xlv,  13,  14;  Judg.  v,  30;  also  other 
texts.     Such  needlework  still  forms  a  principal  part  of  the 


MANNERS   AND   CUSTOMS.  23 

employment  of  females  in  the  Eastern  nations.     It  was  a 
regular  business,  Exod.  xxxv,  35. 

Dr.  Shaw  has  given  a  very  particular  account  of  the 
Eastern  dress,  which,  with  what  other  travelers  relate,  ex- 
plains many  passages  of  Scripture.  He  says,  the  usual 
size  of  the  hyke  (the  upper  garment  commonly  worn)  is 
six  yards  long,  and  five  or  six  feet  wide.  Arundell  de- 
scribes the  white  felt,  or  coarse  cloth,  as  being  the  fair- 
weather  and  foul- weather  companion  of  the  camel- driver. 
It  protects  him  against  heat  or  cold  by  day,  and  at  night 
makes  his  bed  and  bedding.  It  serves  for  dress  by  day, 
and  to  sleep  in  at  night,  as  it  did  to  the  Israelites,  Deut. 
xxiv,  13.  A  covering  is  necessary  in  those  countries,  for, 
although  the  heat  by  day  is  very  great,  the  nights  generally 
are  cold.  Such  a  garment  was  loose  and  troublesome  to 
the  wearer;  he  was  obliged  to  tuck  it  up,  and  fold  it 
round  him.  This  made  a  girdle  necessary  whenever  they 
were  actively  employed  ;  and  it  explains  the  Scripture  ex- 
pression, "  having  our  loins  girded,"  when  called  upon  to 
be  active  in  performing  any  duty. 

Ruth's  veil,  which  held  six  measures  of  barley,  (Ruth  iii, 
15,)  was  a  garment  of  this  sort.  The  kneading-troughs  of 
the  Israelites  were  bound  up  in  their  hykes,  Exod.  xii,  34. 
The  plaid  worn  by  the  Highlanders  is  much  the  same  sort 
of  garment :  the  principal  article  of  dress  worn  in  Java, 
and  other  parts  of  the  East,  is  similar;  it  is  of  many 
colors,  like  the  Scottish  plaid,  and  reminds  us  of  Joseph's 
coat. 

A  wooden  or  metal  pin  was  used  to  fasten  the  folds  of 
this  garment  together  at  the  shoulder.  The  upper  or  the 
outer  fold,  (Neh.  v,  13,)  served  for  an  apron  to  carry  any- 
thing in,  as  the  lap  full  of  wild  gourds,  2  Kings  iv,  39.  See 
also  Ruth  iii,  15  ;  Pro  v.  xvi,  33 ;  and  other  texts.  Paxton 
says  nothing  comes  amiss ;  it  is  put  into  the  bosom,  Luke 
vi,  38. 

The  bumoose  is  a  sort  of  cloak  worn  over  the  hyke.  It 
has  a  cape,  or  hood,  to  cover  the  head,  as  a  shelter  from 
rain.  Under  the  hyke  is  worn  a  close-bodied  frock,  or 
tunic.  These  are  the  cloaks  and  coats  mentioned  Luke  vi, 
29  ;  a  precept  meant  to  be  observed  in  the  spirit  of  it,  not 
in  the  letter.  The  coat  of  the  high  priest  (Exod.  xxviii,  39) 
was  a  tunic,  and  so  was  Tamar's  garment,  2  Sam.  xiii,  18. 


24  JEWISH  NATION. 

The  coat  of  our  Saviour,  "  woven  without  seam,"  was  of 
this  sort,  (John  xix,  23,)  with  an  opening  at  the  top  for  the 
head  to  pass  through.  Such  garments  are  not  uncommon 
in  the  East.  When  persons  thus  clad  are  engaged  in  any 
employment,  they  usually  throw  off  the  bumoose  and  hyke, 
and  remain  in  their  tunics.  Thus,  our  Saviour  laid  aside 
his  garment  when  he  washed  the  disciples'  feet ;  and  when 
Saul,  and  Da^dd,  and  others,  are  spoken  of  as  being  naked, 
it  means  that  they  had  put  off  their  upper  garments,  and 
had  upon  them  only  their  tiuiics.  Garments  like  these 
would  fit  a  number  of  persons.  Gen.  xxvii,  15 ;  1  Sam. 
xviii,  4 ;  Luke  xv,  22 ;  they  would  not  need  altering,  like 
our  clothes,  before  they  could  be  worn  by  others.  The 
hykes,  or  upper  garments,  were  spread  in  the  way  when 
our  Saviour  entered  Jerusalem  in  triumph.  Matt,  xxi,  8. 

Under  the  tunic,  a  shirt,  usually  of  linen  or  cotton,  is  worn. 
Perkins  describes  a  pasha  of  the  Koords  with  shirt  sleeves 
a  yard  and  a  half  wide ;  these  are  rolled  up,  and  made  tight 
just  above  the  elbow,  when  needful.  In  times  of  sorrow, 
even  from  the  days  of  Job,  sackcloth  was  worn  next  the 
skin,  Job.  X\i,  15  ;  by  David,  when  mourning  for  Abner, 
2  Sam.  iii,  31 ;  even  by  Ahab,  1  Kings  xxi,  27.  But 
the  instances  are  too  numerous  to  be  all  quoted  here. 
The  females  also  wore  sackcloth,  Isa.  iii,  24 ;  Joel  i,  8. 
Loose  trowsers  are  worn  both  by  men  and  women  in  the 
East. 

The  law  of  Moses  directed  the  Israelites  (Num.  xv, 
37-42)  to  put  a  fringe,  or  tassel,  to  each  of  the  comers  of 
their  upper  garments,  that  when  they  saw  them,  they 
might  remember  all  the  commandments  of  the  Lord  to  do 
them.  The  hem  of  Christ's  garment  (Matt,  ix,  20)  means 
these  fringes.  In  later  times,  they  wrote  passages  from 
the  law  upon  strips  of  parchment,  called  phylacteries,  and 
fastened  them  on  the  borders  of  their  garments,  or  round 
their  wrists  or  foreheads.  These  were,  by  many  ignorant 
persons,  used  as  a  sort  of  charm  to  preserve  the  warriors 
from  danger;  hypocrites  wore  them,  that  they  might  be 
thought  more  holy  than  their  neighbors.  Matt,  xxiii,  5. 

The  girdles  are  usually  of  worsted,  sometimes  richly 
worked,  Prov.  xxxi,  24 ;  they  were  folded  several  times 
round  the  body,  and  kept  the  clothes  tight,  Isa.  v,  27; 
1  Kings  xviii,  46.     One  end  is  sewn  up,  so  as  to  make  a 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  25 

purse  or  small  pocket.  Small  articles  were  often  carried 
tucked  into  the  girdle,  see  Ezek.  ix,  2.  A  leathern  girdle 
is  frequently  worn  round  the  loins  imder  the  clothes.  This 
is  alluded  to,  1  Pet.  i,  13. 

The  female  dresses  were  often  richly  embroidered,  as 
Judg.  V,  30;  Psa.  xlv,  13;  Prov.  xxxi,  22.  Purple  and 
scarlet  were  colors  worn  by  the  rich  and  mighty,  2  Sam. 
i,  27;  Judg.  viii,  26;  Dan.  v,  29;  Luke  xvi,  19;  Rev. 
xvii,  4  ;  Jer.  x,  9  ;  Ezek.  xxvii,  V.  The  extent  to  which  the 
Jewish  women  went,  as  to  their  finery,  appears  from  Isa. 
iii,  18-23.  Dr.  Henderson's  translation  presents  an  accu- 
rate list  of  female  dress  and  ornaments — the  ankle-bands, 
tasseled  tresses,  crescents,  ear-pendents,  bracelets,  small 
veils,  turbans,  stepping- chains,  (a  sort  of  fetter  to  oblige 
them  to  walk  "  mincingly,"  ver.  16,)  girdles,  smelling-bot- 
tles, amulets,  finger-rings,  jewels  of  the  nose,  vestments, 
tunics,  cloaks,  purses,  mirrors,  linen  shifts,  ribbons,  and 
large  veils. 

But  there  is  one  ornament  which  would  be  thought  very 
odd  among  us, — an  ornament  which  hung  on  the  forehead, 
and  reached  down  to  the  nose  ;  it  is  called  the  nose-jewel, 
Isa.  iii,  21.  But  in  many  parts  of  the  East,  and  in  India, 
at  the  present  day,  this  ornament  hangs  from  the  right  or 
left  side  of  the  nose,  which  is  pierced  for  the  purpose. 
Some  of  these  rings  are  very  large,  and  richly  ornamented 
with  jewels.  When  the  ring  is  not  worn,  a  bit  of  stick  is 
usually  put  into  the  hole  to  prevent  it  from  closing.  Many 
fashionable  women  who  are  fond  of  necklaces,  or  other 
finery,  would  not  like  to  wear  the  ornament  just  described ; 
and  yet  there  is  no  reason  why  it  should  not  look  as  hand- 
some to  wear  a  nose-jewel  as  any  other  vain  finery.  Char- 
din  says  he  never  saw  a  young  woman  in  Arabia  or  Persia 
without  this  ornament.  He  describes  the  ring  as  of  gold, 
commonly  with  two  pearls  and  a  ruby. 

The  Grecian  and  Roman  women,  and  those  of  many 
other  nations,  in  ancient  times,  all  wore  their  hair  long. 
And  it  is  so  in  the  East  in  modern  times.  Pitts  describes 
women  at  Cairo  with  braided  tresses  down  to  their  feet, 
having  small  bells  hung  to  them.  They  take  a  great  deal 
of  pains  to  plait  and  adorn  their  hair,  and  thus  employ 
much  time  in  a  vain  and  unprofitable  manner.  Rev.  ix,  8 ; 
Luke  vii,  38  ;  1  Cor.  xi,  15.     Shaw  observed  the  same  of 


26  JEWISH  NATION. 

the  Moorish  females.  Jowett  describes  his  hostess  at  Bey- 
rout  as  wearing  an  infinite  variety  of  small  braids,  ending 
with  gold  coins,  the  whole  being  worth  from  five  to  ten 
pomids.  The  apostles  Peter  and  Paul  blamed  the  custom, 
1  Pet.  iii,  3  ;  1  Tim.  ii,  9.  They  forbade  it  as  improper  for 
those  who  profess  to  love  Christ ;  desiring  them  not  to  seek 
to  be  admired  for  outward  finery,  but  for  the  ornament  of 
a  meek  and  quiet  spirit,  which  in  the  sight  of  God  is  of 
great  price,  or  value.  The  Eastern  females  who  have  been 
influenced  by  the  labors  of  the  missionaries,  in  many  cases 
have  laid  aside  these  ornaments  and  fashions. 

Also  horns,  made  of  silver,  in  shape  like  candle-extinguish- 
ers, were  worn  on  the  forehead,  both  by  men  and  women ;  the 
posture  necessary  to  keep  them  in  their  places  is  alluded 
to.  Psalm  Ixxv,  5.  The  horn  is  often  mentioned  in  the  Bible 
as  an  emblem  of  honor  or  power,  1  Sam.  ii,  10 ;  Job  xvi, 
15  ;  Psalm  cxii,  9,  and  many  other  Psalms ;  Lam.  ii,  3,  lY ; 
but  these  horns  were  common  as  a  part  of  the  female  head- 
dress in  Europe  in  fhe  middle  ages.  Pliny  Fisk  describes 
the  horn  worn  by  females  in  Syria  as  a  foot  long :  it  is  called 
Tantoor. 

The  women  stained  their  eyes  with  a  black  powder,  and 
they  do  so  now.  Lane  says  it  is  applied  along  the  edges 
of  the  eyelids,  with  a  blunt  bodkin.  This  explains  the  rend- 
ing of  the  eyes,  (Jer.  iv,  30,)  which  is  mistranslated,  as  paint- 
ing the  face.  Jezebel  did  this,  2  Kings  ix,  30.  Shaw  sa-\^ 
one  of  these  bodkins,  and  a  joint  of  a  reed  with  this  powder, 
that  had  been  taken  out  of  a  tomb.  Probably  the  deceased 
had  been  accustomed  thus  to  "  rend  her  eyes"  when  living. 
The  eastern  women  also  sometimes  draw  lines  or  spots  of  a 
blue  color  on  their  faces.  The  feet  and  the  hands,  particu- 
larly the  nails,  are  often  stained  a  reddish  yellow,  with  the 
juice  of  a  plant  called  henna. 

The  men  always  wore  their  hair  short,  except  perhaps  a 
few,  who  were  something  like  the  fops  and  dandies  of  our 
times ;  this  may  explain  1  Cor.  xi,  14.  The  women  in  Ju- 
dea  and  Greece,  and  some  other  countries,  wore  veils  when 
they  appeared  in  public.  These  were  not  loose,  like  the 
veils  now  worn  by  Europeans,  but  were  wrapped  closely 
round  the  face.  Such  veils  are  universally  worn  by  women 
in  the  East  when  abroad,  but  quite  as  much  for  concealment 
as  from  modesty.     The  young  children  frequently  have  veils 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  27 

when  without  any  other  clothing.  Four  sorts  of  veils  are 
described  by  Calmet :  the  first  like  a  kerchief,  the  second 
covers  the  bosom,  the  third  is  the  large  veil,  which  com- 
pletely covers  the  figure,  the  fourth  is  a  sort  of  handker- 
chief worn  over  the  face.  The  apostle  Paul,  in  writing  to 
the  Christians  at  Corinth,  a  city  of  Greece,  blames  the  wo- 
men who  appeared  in  the  house  of  God  with  their  heads  un- 
covered, 1  Cor.  xi,  5. 

Absalom  was  vain  of  his  beauty,  and  of  his  long  hair, 
2  Sam  xiv,  25,  26.  God  often  is  pleased  to  punish  wicked 
men  by  the  things  which  they  have  been  most  proud  of ; 
so  when  he  had  rebelled  against  his  father,  and  had  been 
defeated  in  battle,  his  long  hair  was  caught  by  the  boughs 
of  a  tree  while  riding  away;  thus  he  was  overtaken  and 
slain,  2  Sam.  xviii,  9.  Hartley  found  it  necessary  to  be  on 
his  guard  when  riding  under  the  olive-trees. 

Plucking  or  pulling  off  the  hair  was  not  only  very  pain- 
ful, but  was  a  great  disgrace  among  the  Jews,  Neh.  xiii,  25. 
They  wore  their  beards  very  long,  and  were  commanded 
not  to  cut  them  in  a  fanciful  or  ridiculous  manner,  Lev. 
xix,  27.  This  made  the  affront  greater  that  Hanun  oflfered 
to  David's  ambassadors,  2  Sam.  x,  4. 

The  eastern  nations  at  the  present  day  wear  their  beards 
long ;  they  consider  it  is  a  mark  of  folly  in  Europeans  to 
cut  them  short.  They  even  have  a  saying  which  expresses 
that  a  man  with  a  long  beard  will  not  act  dishonestly. 
When  Martyn,  the  missionary,  was  in  Persia,  he  allowed 
his  beard  to  grow,  and  found  that  the  natives  respected  him 
on  that  account.  But  our  Saviour  declared  that  all  evil 
thoughts  and  bad  actions  proceed  from  the  heart.  Matt. 
XV,  19.  Unless  that  is  changed  by  Divine  grace,  there  is 
nothing  in  dress  or  fashion  which  will  make  a  bad  man 
good.  The  Nazarites,  (Nuna.  vi,  5,)  who  did  not  cut 
their  hair,  will  be  noticed  in  another  part  of  this  volume. 
Samson  was  to  be  accounted  as  one,  Judg.  xiii,  1 ; 
xvi,  11. 

Cutting  off  the  beard,  or  wearing  it  in  a  rough,  disor- 
dered manner,  was  a  mark  of  sorrow,  2  Sam.  xix,  24 ;  Ezra 
ix,  3  ;  Job  i,  20.     It  is  so  now  in  eastern  nations. 

The  turbans  worn  by  men  are  often  very  heavy  and  cum- 
bersome. Niebuhr  describes  them  as  sometimes  wearing 
as  many  as  fifteen  caps,  one  over  another,  the  outer  one 


28  JEWISH  NATION. 

richly  embroidered,  and  a  piece  of  muslin  wrapped  round 
above  all.  Burkhardt  describes  the  covering  of  the  head 
worn  by  the  Arabs  as  a  square  kerchief  of  cotton,  or  silk 
and  cotton  mixed,  folded  round  the  head,  one  corner  hang- 
ing behind,  two  others  over  the  front  of  the  shoulders, 
which  they  put  up  before  tlieir  faces,  to  protect  from  the 
sun  or  rain,  or  to  conceal  their  features. 

They  did  not  wear  stockings  and  shoes  formerly,  as  is 
common  now,  but  only  a  sandal,  which  is  like  the  sole  of 
a  shoe,  tied  on  the  foot  with  a  band,  or  other  fastening. 
This  was  pulled  off  on  entering  a  holy  place,  or  on  coming 
into  the  presence  of  a  great  person :  see  Exod.  iii,  5  :  Josh. 
V,  15.  The  Mohammedans  do  so  at  the  present  day  when 
they  enter  a  mosque  or  place  of  worship,  or  come  into  a 
room  where  a  great  man  is  sitting :  (see  page  34 ;)  but 
sometimes  now  the  slipper  is  sewed  to  the  stocking. 

Bracelets  were  worn  by  men  as  well  as  women.  Roman 
soldiers  received  them  as  badges  of  merit.  Saul's  bracelet 
is  mentioned,  2  Sam.  i,  10.  Rings  and  chains  were  given 
as  marks  of  esteem  and  honor:  see  Esth.  iii,  10;  viii,  2; 
Gen.  xli,  42 ;  Dan.  v,  29 ;  Exod.  xxviii,  11 ;  Jer.  xxii,  24. 
Some  of  the  rings  were  called  signets,  they  were  stones  set 
in  metal,  as  alluded  to  Exod.  xxviii,  11 ;  signets  wholly  of 
metal  were  used  among  the  Romans,  but  not  till  the  times 
of  the  emperors.  They  were  engraved  with  some  charac- 
ters, or  devices,  like  our  seals ;  and  when  the  kings  or  great 
men  signed  a  decree,  or  written  document,  they  did  so  by 
inking  the  signet,  and  stamping  it  on  the  paper.  Robinson 
describes  the  Arab  with  whom  he  contracted  for  camels, 
on  his  journey  in  the  desert,  as  smearing  the  tip  of  his 
finger  with  ink,  and  pressing  it  on  the  paper,  to  supply  his 
want  of  a  signet.  Or  they  sealed  by  putting  clay  or  wax, 
as  in  sealing  the  stone  on  the  lions'  den,  Dan.  vi,  17 ;  and 
the  priests  sealing  the  sepulchre,  Matt,  xxvii,  66.  Job  re- 
fers to  this,  xxxviii,  14.  The  sacrifices  were  marked  as  ap- 
proved, by  being  sealed  with  wax.  Christ  being  thus  ap- 
proved as  a  sacrifice  for  the  sins  of  men,  is  referred  to,  John 
vi,  27 :  "  Him  hath  God  the  Father  sealed."  The  ring 
given  by  Pharaoh  to  Joseph  was  a  signet ;  and  the  giving 
the  ring  was  a  mark  of  the  highest  confidence.  At  the 
present  day,  a  merchant's  letter  in  the  East  is  authenticated 
by  his  seal.     This  makes  the  business  of  seal-cutter  one  of 


MANNERS  AND  CUBTOMS.  29 

great  importance.  He  keeps  a  register  of  those  he  makes. 
Jewels  with  the  name  of  a  beloved  person,  engraven  as  a 
signet,  were  worn,  as  Sol.  Song,  viii,  6.  They  may  be 
noticed  in  pictures  or  portraits. 

Anklets  were  the  tinkling  ornaments  about  the  feet,  Isa. 
iii,  18.  M'Cheyne  says,  he  heard  the  sound  as  the  women 
passed.  He  also  noticed  the  Jewesses  wearing  round  tires 
like  the  moon. 

In  ancient  times,  we  read  in  the  Bible  that  persons  al- 
ways considered  it  necessary  to  wash  and  change  their 
clothes  before  they  engaged  in  anything  which  was  par- 
ticularly holy.  Jacob  told  his  family  to  do  so  before  they 
went  with  him  to  sacrifice  at  Bethel,  Gen.  xxxv,  2,  3.  Mo- 
ses, also,  spoke  in  a  similar  manner,  Exod.  xix,  14.  All 
should  think  of  this ;  it  may  remind  us  to  be  clean  and 
neat,  but  not  finely  or  richly  dressed,  on  God's  holy  day, 
and  before -we  attend  in  his  house. 

It  was  customary  to  rend  or  tear  the  clothes,  and  to 
throw  dust  upon  them,  to  express  sorrow  and  grief:  see 
Gen.  xxxvii,  29,  34 ;  Ezra  ix,  3 ;  Job  i,  20 ;  Num.  xiv,  6 ; 
Joel  ii,  13 ;  also  other  passages.  Wlien  the  high  priest 
pretended  to  be  grieved  at  hearing  the  Saviour  say  what  ^ 
he  called  blasphemy,  he  rent  his  clothes.  Matt,  xxvi,  65. 
The  apostles  did  the  same,  when  grieved  at  the  people  for 
offering  to  worship  them.  Acts  xiv,  14.  The  Jews,  also, 
wore  clothes  of  haircloth  and  sackcloth  as  mourning ;  the 
prophets  who  mourned  over  the  sins  of  the  people  were 
thus  clad,  Zech.  xiii,  4  ;  John  the  Baptist,  Matt,  iii,  4. 
Such  rough  garments  are  now  worn  as  cloaks.  Jacob,  (Gen. 
xxxvii,  34,)  and  others,  (as  2  Kings  xix,  1 ;  Esth.  iv,  1,  etc.,) 
wore  sackcloth  when  mourning,  or  in  trouble,  as  already 
mentioned. 

The  dress  of  eastern  chiefs  probably  is  much  the  same 
now  as  it  was  two  thousand  years  ago. 

In  ancient  times  rich  persons  generally  had  a  number  of 
garments,  many  of  them  very  rich  and  splendid.  A  great 
man  among  the  Romans  is  said  to  have  had  five  thousand 
suits  of  clothes.  When  making  presents,  changes  of  rai- 
ment are  generally  included,  as  Gen.  xiv,  22 ;  2  Kings  v, 
22  ;  2  Chron.  ix,  24.  A  person  declining  the  office  of  a 
ruler,  (Isa.  iii,  7,)  alledged  that  he  had  no  bread  or  clothing 
in  his  house ;  neither  food  nor  clothes  to  give  his  retainers. 


30  JEWISH  NATION. 

A  lady  showed  Jowett  at  least  ten  heavy  outer  garments, 
coats  of  many  colors,  embroidered  and  spangled  with  gold 
and  silver  and  flowers.  These,  he  observes,  contrasted 
oddly  with  her  daily  occupations,  taking  a  part  in  house- 
hold duties,  cooking  and  sweeping ;  but  such  is  the  condi- 
tion of  females  in  the  East. 

Silver,  and  gold,  and  raiment,  are  often  mentioned  toge- 
ther as  riches  or  treasures,  as  Zech.  xiv,  14,  Thus  Christ 
told  his  disciples  not  to  lay  up  treasures  which  moth  and 
rust  might  corrupt.  Matt,  vi,  19.  The  apostle  Paul  says 
he  had  not  coveted  silver,  or  gold,  or  apparel.  Acts  xx,  33. 
The  apostle  James  expresses  himself  in  the  same  manner, 
ch.  V,  2,  3.  Some  clothes  were  perfumed  ;  see  Psa.  xlv,  8  ; 
Cant,  iv,  11 ;  this  explains  Gen.  xxvii,  15,  27,  for  the  best 
garments  were  laid  by  in  chests  with  perfumes.  Perfumes 
are  much  used  in  the  East;  "the  ivory  palaces,"  (Psa. 
xlv,  8,)  probably,  were  the  perfume-boxes.  The  sweet  or 
perfumed  ointments  were  very  costly,  and  kept  in  alabaster 
boxes,  as  Mark  xiv,  3  ;  Luke  vii,  3*7.  The  tablets,  (Exod. 
XXXV,  22 ;  Isa.  iii,  20,)  it  is  supposed,  were  boxes  for  per- 
fumes. 
%  In  large  fsimilies,  clothing  was  made  at  home.  The  wool 
or  flax  was  first  spun  into  thread ;  the  cloth  was  afterwards 
woven,  and  made  into  garments  by  the  mistress  of  the 
family  and  her  maidens,  Prov.  xxxi,  13. 

Among  eastern  nations  it  is  still  the  custom  to  send  gar- 
ments as  presents.  Ambassadors  and  travelers  generally 
have  some  articles  of  dress  given  to  them  by  the  rulers  and 
great  men  of  the  places  they  visit. 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  31 


MODES  OF  BOWING,  DOING  HOMAGE,  AND  WORSHIP  IN  THE  EAST. 

CHAPTER  iV. 
SALUTATIONS — VISITING — EARLY  RISING. 

SALUTATIONS. 

When  people  meet,  it  is  usual  to  say  something  kind  or 
respectful  to  each  other :  this  is  called  saluting.  The  Eastern 
nations  were,  and  still  are,  very  exact  in  observing  their 
rules  of  politeness.  There  is  a  beautiful  instance  of  this  in 
Abraham's  conduct  to  the  children  of  Heth,  Gen.  xxiii. 
David  saluted  his  brethren  when  he  drew  near  to  them, 

1  Sam.  xvii,  22.  Many  other  texts  in  the  Bible  also  show 
that  when  people  met  each  other  they  used  kind  salutations. 
Their  inquiries  respecting  each  other's  welfare  were  nume- 
rous and  particular ;  and  at  partmg  they  concluded  with 
many  wishes  of  happiness  to  each  other.  When  they  met, 
they  generally  said,  '*  The  Lord  be  with  thee  ;"  "  The  Lord 
bless  thee ;"  and  "Blessed  be  thou  of  the  Lord ;"  or  "Peace" 
(which  they  considered  as  including  every  good  wish)  "  be 
with  thee :"  Ruth  ii,  4 ;  Judg.  xix,  20  ;  1   Sam.  xxv,  6 ; 

2  Sam.  XX,  9  ;  Psa.  cxxix,  8. 

Jowett  remarks  of  Syria,  that  it  is  the  land  of  good  wishes 


32  JEWISH  NATION. 

and  overflowing  compliments.  He  gives  an  example  of 
these  mutual  expressions,  "Good  morning."  "May  your 
day  be  enriched !"  "  By  seeing  you."  "  You  have  en- 
lightened the  house  by  your  presence."  "Are  you  happy?" 
"  Happy !  and  you  also  ?"  "  Happy."  "  You  are  comfort- 
able— I  am  comfortable ;"  meaning,  if  you  are  so.  These, 
and  various  other  unmeaning  expressions,  are  repeated  over 
and  over,  so  as  to  delay  persons  on  a  journey,  Luke  x,  4. 

In  the  later  times  of  the  Jewish  nation,  much  time  was 
spent  in  these  forms  and  ceremonies,  as  is  still  very  usual 
in  Eastern  nations,  particularly  in  China,  where  there  is  a 
great  deal  more  ceremony  than  among  any  other  people, 
but  very  little  sincerity.  If  a  traveler  in  the  East  meets  any 
person  on  the  road,  he  loses  much  time  in  these  salutations, 
and  his  thoughts  are  continually  interrupted  from  more  im- 
portant subjects.  Christ  told  his  disciples,  when  he  sent 
them  out  to  travel,  "  Salute  no  man  by  the  way,"  Luke 
X,  4 ;  as  if  he  had  said,  "Do  not  waste  your  time  in  long  con- 
versations and  useless  ceremonies  with  the  people  you  may 
meet,  but  remember  the  important  business  upon  which 
you  are  employed."  "that  it  was  to  guard  against  the  fool- 
ish excess  to  which  these  customs  were  carried,  and  not  to 
forbid  them  to  show  proper  respect  and  civility,  is  plain 
from  Matt,  x,  12.  When  they  came  into  a  house  they  were 
to  salute  it,  or  to  say,  "  Peace  be  to  this  house,"  Luke  x,  5. 
The  order  to  salute  no  one  on  the  way,  would  impress  them 
with  the  importance  of  attending  fully  to  the  duties  they 
were  sent  to  perform,  and  the  refraining  from  it  is  noticed 
Psalm  cxxix,  8,  as  to  be  regretted.  This  also  explains 
Elisha's  order  to  Gehazi,  2  Kings  iv,  29. 

The  apostle  Peter  wrote  in  his  epistles,  "Be  courteous," 

1  Peter  iii,  8.  The  apostle  Paul  evidently  was  so;  he  was 
truly  "  a  Christian  gentleman,"  though  sometimes  he  earned 
his  bread  with  his  own  labor ;  for  these  characters  are  by 
no   means   inconsistent   with   each   other,    Acts   xviii,   3 ; 

2  Thess.  iii,  8. 

"  Peace  be  unto  you,"  is  the  usual  salutation.  In  the 
last  discourse  of  our  Lord  with  his  disciples,  he  alludes,  veiy 
beautifully,  to  the  empty  way  in  which  the  people  of  the 
world  express  their  good  wishes  to  each  other,  and  shows 
how  much  more  sincere  are  his  earnest  desires  for  our  wel- 
fare.    "  Peace  I  leave  with  you,  my  peace  I  give  unto  you ; 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  33 

not  as  the  world  giveth,  give  I  unto  you/'  John  xiv,  27. 
Worldly  pleasures  will  soon  tire,  and  pass  away ;  but  if  we 
really  love  Christ,  then  God  the  Holy  Spirit  will  impart  to 
us  peace  of  mind  which  the  world  cannot  give ;  for  "  great 
peace  have  they  that  love  the  Lord."  And  that  peace  shall 
endure  to  the  end. 

Salutations  in  the  East  were,  as  formerly  in  Europe,  by 
kissing,  thus  Gen.  xxxiii,  4  ;  and  to  this  the  apostle  refers, 
2  Cor.  xiii,  12.  Came  remarked  among  the  Arabs  the  kiss 
on  the  cheek,  and  passionate  exclamations  of  joy  on  meet- 
ing. Another  traveler  mentions  that  his  camel- driver  and  a 
Bedouin  acquaintance  kissed  each  other  five  times  on  the 
cheek. 

In  the  East,  people  bowed  very  low,  as  Jacob,  (Gen. 
xxxiii,  3,)  and  his  sons,  (xlii,  6,)  which  shows  what  is  meant 
by  stooping  with  the  face  to  the  earth,  and  bowing,  David 
did  so,  1  Sam.  xxiv,  8,  and  Ruth  ii,  10. 

Jacob's  sending  his  sons  and  wives  first,  to  meet  Esau, 
would  be  respectful,  as  well  as  a  measure  of  precaution. 
This  is  now  customary.  Morier  remarks  upon  it  as  illus- 
trating Balak  sending  "  yet  again  princes,  more  and  more 
honorable  than  the  first,"  to  meet  Balaam,  Num.  xxii,  15. 
Clothes,  or  garments,  are  spread  by  the  way,  as  on  our 
Lord's  entrance  into  Jerusalem,  Matt,  xxi,  8,  Robinson  re- 
lates that  the  people  of  Bethlehem  thus  honored  the  Eng- 
lish consul,  when  they  desired  his  interference  in  their 
behalf. 

When  the  people  in  former  times  came  to  kings  or 
princes,  they  fell  down  before  them.  Comehus  did  so 
when  Peter  came  to  him.  Acts  x,  25 ;  and  Esther,  before 
Ahasuerus,  Esth.  viii,  3 ;  Adonijah,  before  Solomon, 
1  Kings  i,  53. 

Putting  off  the  shoes  is  a  mark  of  respect,  both  on  en- 
tering a  place  of  worship,  and  on  coming  into  the  presence 
of  a  superior.  Thus  Moses  was  to  put  off  his  shoes  on  the 
manifestation  of  the- presence  of  the  Lord,  Exod.  iii,  5. 

When  mounted,  they  alight  on  the  approach  of  a  supe- 
rior. Thus  Rebekah,  Gen.  xxiv,  64 ;  and  Abigail,  1  Sam. 
XXV,  23.  Niebuhr  saw  an  Arabian  lady  thus  alight  from 
respect  to  a  sheikh  ;  another  who  was  on  foot,  being  unable 
to  go  from  the  road,  sat  down  and  turned  her  back,  as  a 
mark  of  respect.     So  difterent  are  the  manners  of  the  East 

2* 


34 


JEWISH  NATION. 


PUTTING  OFF  THE  SHOES. 


from  our  own.  Kissing  the  hand,  or  feet,  or  hem  of  the 
garment,  are  marks  of  respect ;  they  are  repeatedly  men- 
tioned in  Scripture,  Job  xxxi,  27 ;  Matt,  xxviii,  9  ;  Luke 
vii,  45 ;  viii,  44.  Or  even  the  ground,  Isa.  xhx,  23  ;  Psa. 
Ixxii,  9. 

VISITING. 

Among  Eastern  nations  it  always  has  been  usual  to  bring 
presents  when  people  visit  each  other  :  they  never  appear 
before  a  prince  or  great  man  without  having  something  to 
offer.  There  are  many  instances  of  this  in  the  Bible;  as 
Jacob,  see  Gen.  xliii,  11  ;  also  Ehud,  Judg.  iii,  18 ;  Hazael, 
2  Kings  viii,  9 ;  Naaman ;  the  wife  of  Jeroboam,  1  Kings 
xiv,  3  ;  also  the  wise  men  who  came  from  the  East  to  see 
the  infant  Jesus ;  and  many  others.  The  forty  camels' 
burden  of  Hazael  might  not  be  heavy  loads ;  in  such  cases 
it  is  usual  to  make  a  long  procession,  each  article  being 
carried  separately. 

This  mark  of  respect  still  is  always  necessary :  however 
small  or  mean  the  gift  may  be,  it  is  accepted  as  a  proof  of 
attention.  Thus,  in  1  Sam.  ix,  7,  observe  Saul's  anxiety : 
"  If  we  go,  what  shall  we  bring  the  man  of  God  ?  there  is 
not  a  present."  At  length  his  servant,  producing  the 
fourth  part  of  a  shekel,  (a  small  piece  of  money,)  said, 
**  That  will  I  give  to  the  man  of  God."      Modem  travelers 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  35 

tell  us  that  even  when  poor  people  visit,  they  bring  a 
flower  or  fniit,  or  some  such  trifle.  One  traveler  tells  of  a 
present  of  fifty  radishes ;  and  when  Bruce,  the  Abyssinian 
traveler,  had  agreed,  at  the  request  of  a  chief,  to  take  a 
poor  sick  Arab  with  him  for  a  great  distance,  the  poor 
man  presented  him  with  a  dirty  cloth,  containing  about  ten 
dates.  Bruce  mentions  this  to  show  how  important  and 
necessary  presents  are  considered  in  the  East;  whether 
dates  or  diamonds,  a  man  thinks  it  needful  to  offer  some- 
thing. This  may  explain  Rabshakeh's  advice,  2  Kings 
xviii,  31. 

The  higher  the  rank  of  the  person  to  whom  the  present 
is  brought,  the  greater  it  is  expected  to  be.  The  queen  of 
Sheba,  2  Chron.  ix,  9 ;  Naaman,  2  Kings  v,  5 ;  and  Bero- 
dach-baladan,  2  Kings  xx,  12,  offered  large  presents.  Thus, 
the  offering  of  gold,  frankincense,  and  myrrh,  all  of  which 
were  very  precious,  presented  by  the  wise  men  of  the  East, 
(Matt,  ii,  11,)  was  a  mark  of  their  high  respect  for  Him  to 
whose  presence  they  were  led  by  the  wondrous  star  that 
had  appeared. 

There  is  always  much  attention  to  forms  in  the  East.  In 
visiting,  the  place,  and  even  the  method  of  sitting,  are  mat- 
ters of  importance.  The  seat  at  the  comer  of  the  room  is 
most  honorable ;  visitors  are  placed  there  to  whom  it  is  in- 
tended to  show  particular  respect.  Conversation  is  gene- 
rally very  reserv^ed  and  grave.  It  appears  to  have  been  so 
in  ancient  times  :  see  Eccles.  v,  3 ;  Prov.  x,  19  ;  and  many 
other  texts  in  that  book. 

When  a  person  visited  another,  he  did  not  nidely  enter 
the  house  at  once,  but  he  stood  at  the  door,  and  called 
aloud,  or  knocked,  and  waited  till  he  was  admitted :  see 
2  Kings  V,  9 ;  Acts  x.  I'Z  ;  xii,  13,  16.  This  is  alluded  to 
in  those  beautiful  texts,  Rev.  iii,  20  ;  Matt,  vii,  7. 

When  visitors  were  persons  of  rank  or  importance,  it  was 
usual  to  send  persons  to  meet  them,  as  Balak  sent  the 
princes  of  Moab  to  meet  Balaam,  Nrnn.  xxii,  7,  13. 

Visitors  were  always  received  with  respect,  and  attention 
was  always  shown  to  them  at  parting.  Abraham  showed 
great  respect  to  his  three  angelic  visitors.  On  the  arrival 
of  guests,  water  was  brought  to  wash  their  feet  and  hands. 
Gen.  xviii,  4 ;  xix,  2  ;  and  they  were  often  anointed  with 
oil,  Psa.  xxiii,  5. 


36  JEWISH  NATION. 

This  was  the  custom  in  our  Saviour's  time :  Mary  Mag- 
dalene broke  an  alabaster  box,  or  bottle,  full  of  precious 
ointment,  and  poured  it  upon  his  head  and  his  feet.  The 
words  Christ  spoke  to  Simon  respecting  her  behavior,  show 
what  was  the  proper  and  respectful  manner  of  receiving 
guests,  which  Sunon  seems  to  have  neglected.  "Seest 
thou  this  woman  ?  I  entered  into  thy  house,  thou  gavest 
me  no  water  for  my  feet ;  but  she  hath  washed  my  feet 
with  tears,  and  wiped  them  with  the  hairs  of  her  head. 
Thou  gavest  me  no  kiss ;  but  this  woman,  since  the  time  I 
came  in,  hath  not  ceased  to  kiss  my  feet.  My  head  with 
oil  thou  didst  not  anoint ;  but  this  woman  hath  anointed 
my  feet  with  ointment,"  Matt,  xxvi,  7 ;  Luke  vii,  44-46 : 
see  also  Prov.  xxvii,  9. 

When  guests  depart,  it  is  the  custom  to  bum  perfumes, 
(perhaps  referred  to  in  Dan.  ii,  46,)  or  sometimes  they  are 
sprinkled  with  sweet-scented  water.  Bruce  was  wetted  to 
the  skin  with  orange-flower  water,  thrown  over  him  as  a 
mark  of  -honor,  when  leaving  the  presence  of  a  great  man. 
If  they  were  ambassadors,  or  persons  of  rank,  it  was  usual 
to  give  them  clothes :  a  great  many  garments  were  kept 
ready  for  this  purpose.  Joseph  gave  raiment  to  his  bre- 
thren, Gen.  xlv,  22 :  see  also  Judg.  xiv,  12,  19  ;  2  Kings 
V,  5 ;  Rev.  vi,  11,  etc.  A  garment  already  worn  is  often 
an  especial  honor,  as  Jonathan's  present  to  David,  1  Sam. 
xviii,  4. 

To  this  custom  of  great  men  bestowing  raiment  upon 
their  guests,  our  Lord  refers.  Matt,  xxii,  11-13.  It  was 
common  for  the  guests  at  marriage  feasts,  to  appear  in 
splendid  dresses ;  but  as  the  guests  in  the  parable  had 
neither  time  nor  ability  to  prepare  themselves,  the  king 
supplied  them  with  robes  for  the  occasion ;  this  he  might 
easily  do,  from  the  large  quantity  of  clothes  great  men 
possessed.  There  could  be  no  greater  disrespect  than  to 
refuse  a  present  from  a  superior,  as  the  guest  mentioned  did, 
who  was  so  foolish  and  obstinate  as  to  prefer  his  own  rag- 
ged and  shabby  clothes  to  the  dress  that  was  provided  for 
him.  The  Eastern  monarchs  have  power  to  command 
whatever  they  please ;  so  this  guest  was  considered  a  rebel 
against  the  king's  command,  and  an  enemy,  and  treated 
accordingly.  In  how  lively  a  manner  this  represents  the 
bounty  of  our  heavenly  King,  and  our  sinful  and  wretched 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  37 

state  by  nature  !  Let  us  earnestly  seek  for  the  robe  of  the 
righteousness  of  Christ ;  see  Rev.  xix,  8 ;  and  beware  not 
to  pride  ourselves  on  our  own  filthy,  ragged  state ;  lest, 
like  the  guest  mentioned  iii  the  parable,  we  should  find 
ourselves  cast  out.  Remember  the  advice,  Rev.  iii,  18, 
and  go  to  Him  who  "  waiteth  to  be  gracious." 

An  ambassador  in  the  East  was  invited,  with  his  compa- 
nions, to  dine  with  an  eastern  monarch.  The  interpreter 
told  them  that  it  was  the  custom  that  they  should  wear, 
over  their  own 'garments,  the  best  of  those  which  the  king- 
had  sent  them.  At  first  they  hesitated,  and  did  not  like  to 
have  their  own  robes  hidden ;  but  being  told  that  it  was 
expected  from  all  ambassadors,  and  that  the  king  would  be 
much  displeased  if  they  came  into  his  presence  without  his 
robes,  they  wisely  complied. 


EARLY  RISING. 

The  Jews  rose  about  the  dawn  of  the  day,  which,  in 
their  country,  does  not  differ  so  much  in  the  summer  and 
winter,  as  it  does  in  higher  latitudes.  They  dined  about 
eleven,  and  supped  about  five  o'clock  in  the  afternoon. 
These  were  the  hours  at  which  our  ancestors  dined  and 
supped,  till  about  two  hundred  years  ago.  "  To  rise  early," 
is  an  expression  often  used  as  meaning  to  be  diligent,  either 
in  good  or  evil. 

It  is  often  mentioned  of  good  men,  that  when  they  de- 
sired to  fulfill  the  will  of  God,  they  rose  early.  Abraham, 
(Gen.  xxii,  3,)  when,  for  the  trial  of  his  faith,  he  was  com- 
manded to  offer  up  Isaac,  "  rose  up  early"  in  the  morning : 
this  shows  how  ready  he  was  to  do  the  will  of  God,  though 
very  painful  to  him.  Thus  Jacob,  (Gen.  xxviii,  18,)  and 
Moses,  Exod.  xxiv,  4.  Joshua  had  much  to  do,  and  is 
often  spoken  of  as  rising  early,  Josh,  iii,  1  ;  vi,  12  ;  vii,  16  ; 
viii,  10  :  see  also  1  Sam.  xv,  12.  David  rose  early  to  fulfill 
his  father's  order,  1  Sam.  xvii,  20.  Job,  to  sacrifice  for 
his  children.  Job.  i,  5.  King  Darius,  to  inquire  after  Da- 
niel, Dan.  vi,  19  ;  and  the  pious  women  who  went  to  the 
sepulchre  to  pay  respect  to  the  body  of  the  Lord,  went  very 
early  in  the  morning,  Luke  xxiv,  1  ;  John  xx,  I.  Travel- 
ers in  the  East  usually  begin  their  journeys  before  day  : 
this  enables  them  to  travel  in  the  cool  of  the  morning, 


38  JEWISH   NATION. 

and  to  rest  iii  the  heat  of  the  day.  Thus  our  Lord  sat  on 
the  well  at  noon  to  rest,  being  wearied  with  the  journey- 
taken  that  morning,  John  iv,  6.     The  sixth  hour  was  noon. 

Morier,  when  he  traveled  in  Persia,  observed  the  people 
sleeping  upon  the  house-tops  ;  he  noticed  that  the  women 
were  generally  up  the  first,  and  stirring  with  activity  at  an 
early  hour.  M'Cheyne  saw  this  at  Tiberias.  Paxton  ob- 
seiTed  that  many  houses  at  Bey  rout  have  a  sort  of  hut  on 
the  flat  roof,  built  with  reeds,  in  which  people  sleep. 

A  Latin  poet  describes  a  laborer  as  ri^ng  early  before 
day  to  grind  the  usual  daily  portion  in  his  hand-mill,  pro- 
bably Hke  that  on  next  page. 


CHAPTER  V. 

FOOD— FUEL— WATER  AND  OTHER  DRINK— MANNER 
OF  EATING. 

FOOD. 

From  the  Bible,  we  see  that  the  diet,  or  food,  of  the  Jews, 
was  very  simple  and  plain.  It  was  chiefly  bread,  milk, 
honey,  rice,  and  vegetables.  John  the  Baptist  used  to 
feed  upbn  "  locusts  and  wild  honey,"  Mark  ii,  6.  The  locusts 
are  insects  like  grasshoppers  in  shape,  but  much  larger. 
They  fly  in  vast  numbers  together,  and  devour  tlie  green 
herbs  :  see  Joel  i,  4.  Some  think  that  the  fruit  of  a  tree 
is  meant ;  but  the  insects  are  more  likely  to  be  intended 
here  ;  they  are  often  sold  for  food,  dried  or  salted,  and  then 
eaten  with  rice  or  vegetables,  though  Burkhardt  describes 
the  Arabs  as  taking  a  handful  of  them  when  hungry.  Mof- 
fatt  saw  the  natives  in  South  Africa  gathering  ox-loads  of 
these  insects  for  food.  The  bees  made  their  combs  in  hol- 
low places,  as  the  cleft  of  rocks,  Deut.  xxxii,  13  ;  Psa.  Ixxxi, 
16  ;  in  hollow  trees,  1  Sam.  xiv,  25,  26 ;  and  even  in  the 
carcass  of  a  lion,  (Judg.  xiv,  8,)  or  rather  among  the  bones, 
for  the  flesh  must  have  been  consumed.  Our  blessed  Lord 
ate  some  honey  when  he  appeared  to  his  disciples,  (Luke 
xxiv,  42,)  to  show  them  that  his  body  was  actually  raised 
from  the  grave.  Honey  is  mentioned  in  many  other  texts. 
The  land  of  Canaan  is  described  as  "  a  land  flowing  with 


MANNERS   AND    CUSTOMS. 


39 


WOMEN  GRINDING  AT  THE  MILL. 

milk  (which  inchides  butter)  and  honey,"  Exod.  iii,  8  ;  Jer. 
xi,  5  ;  even  as  Job  mentioned  them,  Job  xx,  lY.  At  a  town 
in  Syria,  Came  was  taught  to  mix  them  as  delicacies ;  Irby 
and  Mangles  were  instiiicted  to  dip  their  bread  in  such  a 
mixture;  they  are  still  considered  great  dainties  by  the 
Arabs.  D'Arvieux  tells  us,  that  one  of  the  principal  deli- 
cacies with  which  the  Arabs  regale  themselves  at  breakfast, 
is  cream,  or  new  butter,  perhaps  somethuig  like  the  clotted 
cream  used  in  the  western  parts  of  England,  mixed  with 
honey.  Among  the  food  brought  to  David  and  his  men  by 
Barzillai,  (2  Sam.  xvii,  29,)  were  honey,  butter,  and  cheese. 
The  butter  was  churned  as  now,  by  shaking  the  milk 
in  leather  bags,  or  bottles,  such  as  that  opened  by  Jael, 
Judg.  V,  25.  This  butter-milk  is  described  as  most  refresh- 
ing to  a  weary  man  oppressed  with  heat.  The  milk  of 
goats  and  sheep  is  used  even  more  than. the  milk  of  kine. 

The  Jews  seldom  had  animal  food,  except  at  their  solemn 
feasts  and  sacrifices.  As  they  did  not  often  eat  flesh,  they 
considered  it  a  great  dainty.  Jacob's  pottage  of  lentils, 
which  tempted  Esau  to  sell  his  birthright,  (Gen.  xxv,  29 
-34,)  shows  how  simple  the  usmd  food  of  the  patriarchs 
was.  Irby  and  Mangles  breakfasted  in  an  Arab  camp  from 
a  mess  of  lentils  and  bread,  seasoned  with  pepper ;  they 


40  JEWISH   NATION. 

describe  it  as  very  good.  Lentils  are  a  sort  of  small  beans ; 
they  dissolve  easily  into  a  mess  of  a  reddish  or  chocolate 
color.  From  Isaac's  desire  for  "  savory  meat,"  (Gen.  xxvii, 
4,)  flesh  appears  not  to  have  been  his  usual  food.  The 
feast  which  Abraham  prepared  for  the  angels,  (Gen.  xviii, 
7,  8,)  and  that  which  Gideon  and  Manoah  got  ready  on  a 
like  occasion,  show  that  flesh  meat  was  considered  to  be 
something  more  than  common  fare.  We  may  also  recollect 
that  the  feast  got  ready  for  the  repenting  prodigal,  (Luke 
XV,  23,)  was  a  fatted  calf;  and  may  notice  the  portion  which 
Samuel  set  by  for  Saul,  when  he  expected  him :  it  was  a 
piece  of  flesh  meat,  the  shoulder,  with  what  Avas  upon  it, 
1  Sam.  ix,  24.  This  was  put  by  for  Saul,  as  a  mark  of  dis- 
tinction and  respect ;  it  was  also  at  a  solemn  feast  of  the 
people,  (verses  12,  13,)  which  explains  why  flesh  meat  was 
prepared.  In  Deut.  xii,  20-27,  eating  flesh  is  spoken  of 
as  a  proof  of  wealth  and  prosperity.  It  was  dressed  in 
various  .ways,  Judg.  vi,  19;  1  Sam.  ii,  15.  Sometimes 
pieces  of  flesh  meat  are  roasted  at  a  fire,  but  more  fre- 
quently the  flesh  is  cut  into  small  pieces,  as  soon  as  the 
animal  has  been  skinned ;  these  are  boiled  in  milk,  and  then 
mixed  up  with  rice  or  other  vegetables,  forming  a  sort  of 
stew  called  pillau ;  such  was  made  for  Isaac,  Gen.  xxvii,  9. 

The  sorts  of  food  brought  to  David  by  Abigail,  1  Sam. 
XXV,  18 ;  by  Ziba,  2  Sam.  xvi,  1 ;  and  by  Barzillai,  2  Sam. 
xvii,  28,  29  ;  and  those  taken  by  David  to  his  brothers  and 
their  captain,  (1  Sam.  xvii,  17,  18,)  show  what  was  the 
usual  food  of  the  Israelites.  The  most  common  and  useful 
article  of  food  was  bread,  made  in  loaves  of  different  sorts 
and  sizes. 

Bread  is  often  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  Gen.  xviii,  5  ;  xxi, 
14  ;  1  Sam.  xxviii,  22  ;  Exod.  xvi,  3  ;  Deut.  ix,  9.  It  often 
means  bread  only ;  though  sometimes  it  is  used  as  a  general 
expression  for  a  meal  including  other  sorts  of  food,  Matt. 
XV,  2  ;  Mark  iii,  20  ;  vii,  2 ;  Luke  xiv,  1 ;  John  vi,  23.  The 
bread  was  often  of  diff"erent  sorts  of  grain  mixed  together, 
as  enumerated  Ezek.  iv,  9,  "  wheat,  barley,  beans,  lentils, 
millet,  and  fitches."  Burkhardt  says  that  coarse,  black, 
unleavened  bread  is  the  common  food  of  the  Bedouins  on  a 
journey ;  they  often  travel  for  a  long  time,  the  whole  of 
their  daily  food  being  a  pound  and  a  half  of  such  bread. 
Parched  corn  was  grain  not  quite  ripe,  roasted  or  dried  in 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS. 


41 


the  ear,  and  eaten  without  anything  else  with  it  Such  was 
given  to  Ruth,  (ii,  14,)  and  was  sent  to  David's  brethren, 
1  Sam.  xvii,  17 ;  and  by  Abigail,  xxv,  18.  Robinson  had 
such  parched  corn  offered  to  him  in  a  harvest  field.  He 
saw  travelers  eating  the  grain  raw,  as  they  gathered  it  in 
the  Avay,  like  the  disciples,  Mark  ii,  23. 

The  grain  was  usually  ground  into  flour,  then  fermented, 
or  made  light  by  leaven,  then  kneaded  into  breads  The 
flour  was  ground  by  small  hand-mills,  which  were  only  two 
flat  circular  stones,  one  placed  upon  the  other :  the  upper 
one  was  turned  round,  while  the  corn  was  poured  between 
them  through  a  hole  at  the  top.  In  these  representations 
are  a  mill  complete  and  ready  for  use  :  also  the  upper  stone 
and  the  lower  stone.  It  will  be  seen  that  they  are  fitted 
one  into  the  other. 


Mills  like  these  were  in  use  in  the  highlands  of  Scotland 
till  very  lately.  They  were  called  querns ;  and  were  usu- 
ally worked  by  two  women,  (see  Matt,  xxiv,  41,)  who  sat 
one  on  each  side,  and  turned  the  upper  stone  round,  pushing 
the  handle  from  one  to  the  other.  In  Pennant's  "■  Tom*  in 
Scotland,"  there  is  a  picture  which  represents  this,  for  it 
was  usual  in  the  highlands  of  Scotland.  One  of  these  mill- 
stones the  woman  of  Thebez  (Judg.  ix,  53)  cast  upon  the 
head  of  Abimelech :  see  also  Matt,  xviii,  6.  Shaw,  Clarke, 
Hall,  and  other  travelers,  have  described  the  two  women 
grinding  with  the  flat  stones.  The  employment  is  laborious, 
and  usually  performed  by  the  lowest  servants,  Exod.  xi,  5 ; 
it  is  spoken  of  in  Scripture  as  menial,  Isa.  xlvii,  2  ;  Lam. 
V,  13.  Sometimes  the  grain  is  beaten  or  pounded  in  a  mortar, 
Num.  xi,  8  ;  Pro  v.  xxvii,  22  ;  but  this  is  not  common  with 
com.     Coffee  is  thus  beaten. 

These  mills  grind  the  flour  but  slowly,  so  that  it  is  the 
employment  of  every  day  to  grind  some  flour.     The  sound 


42 


JEWISH  NATION. 


of  grinding,  and  of  the  women  singing  as  they  work  the  mill, 
is  heard  in  the  morning  early  in  the  houses  of  the  East,  and 
is  considered  a  sign  that  the  people  are  well  and  active; 
when  it  is  not  heard,  the  neighbors  fear  that  all  is  not  well, 
Eccl.  xii,  4.  This  explains  the  description  of  the  desolate 
state  to  which  Jerusalem  was  to  be  reduced,  Jer.  xxv,  10. 

As  the  millstones  were  so  necessary  to  prepare  the  daily 
food  of  each  family,  the  Israelites  were  forbidden  to  "  take 
the  nether  or  the  upper  millstone  to  pledge :  for  he  taketh 
a  man's  life  to  pledge,"  Deut.  xxiv,  6.  This  is  a  strong  ex- 
pression ;  it  shows  how  important  an  article  of  food  bread 
must  have  been,  when  the  instrument  by  which  it  was  pre- 
pared was  of  so  much  consequence  to  eveiy  family.  The 
finest  flour  was  made  into  cakes,  and  baked  quickly  upon 
the  hearth.  Gen.  x\iii,  6 ;  the  coarser  flour  was  made  into 
loaves,  1  Sam.  xxi,  3.  Sometimes  the  cakes  were  baked 
upon  the  coals,  being  laid  upon  the  hot  embers,  or  upon  a 
flat  piece  of  iron,  or  a  grate  of  iron  over  the  fire,  as  cakes 
are  now  sometimes  baked  upon  a  plate  of  iron,  called  a 
griddle,  and  are  called  griddle-cakes,  1  Kings  xix,  6 ;  they 
must  be  carefully  turned;  the  neglect  is  noticed,  Hosea 


EASTERN  OVEN,  AND  A  WOMAN  WITHDRAWING  A  CAKE  FROM  IT. 


vii,  8.  But  we  also  read  of  ovens  being  used.  Lev.  ii,  4 ;  Mai. 
iv,  1 .  The  ovens  now  in  use  in  the  East  are  heated  by  fuel 
being  burned  within  them,  (Luke  xii,  28,)  as  in  our  bakers' 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  43 

ovens.  When  the  oven  is  hot,  the  loaves  are  put  into  it  to 
bake.  The  bread  is  usually  made  in  flat  cakes.  The  lighter 
kinds  of  bread  stick  to  the  sides  of  these  ovens,  and  are 
soon  baked.  These  ovens  are  sunk  in  the  ground,  which 
explains  how  the  frogs  of  Egypt  got  into  them,  Exod, 
viii,  3.  Sometimes  the  oven  is  only  an  earthen  pot  sunk  in 
the  ground. 

Perkins  describes  a  more  carefully  constructed  oven,  called 
Tannoor,  used  in  Persia,  which,  in  cold  weather,  is  covered 
with  a  quilt  or  other  covering,  under  which  the  family  place 
their  feet  while  they  sleep  in  a  circle  round  it.  Thevenot 
describes  the  roasting  or  baking  of  meat  in  the  ovens. 

Harmer  says  that  the  kneading-troughs  are  often  wooden 
bowls  or  leather  bao^s,  as  amonof  the  Israelites,  Exod, 
xii,  34.  Niebuhr  describes  these  leathers  as  round  and  flat, 
used  as  tables,  and,  after  eating,  drawn  up  by  cords  and 
rings  at  the  sides,  like  a  bag  or  purse. 

Leviticus  xi  contains  particular  directions  as  to  what  sorts 
of  animal  food  the  Jews  might  eat,  and  what  was  forbidden 
them.  Upon  this  a  general  remark  may  be  made,  that  the 
sorts  of  food  forbidden,  are  mostly  such  as  are  unwhole- 
some and  hard  of  digestion.  Pork,  for  instance,  is  con- 
sidered very  unwholesome  in  those  hot  countries.  Many 
sorts  of  food  which  may  be  eaten  among  us  without  harm, 
would  be  very  dangerous  there.  In  the  year  1801,  when 
the  English  attacked  the  French  in  Egypt,  many  of  the 
troops  died  from  want  of  care  in  this  respect.  The  illness 
of  which  the  captain  of  one  of  the  Enghsh  frigates  died,  be- 
gan from  his  persisting  to  eat  eggs  for  breakfast,  though  it 
was  not  safe  for  Europeans  to  do  so  in  those  countries. 
Cooling  vegetables  were,  and  still  are,  much  used  for  food, 
as  melons  and  cucumbers,  Isa.  i,  8.  The  Israelites  in  the 
wilderness  longed  for  them.  Num.  xi,  5. 

But  the  laws  respecting  food  were  also  to  keep  the  Jews 
a  separate  people  from  those  nations  who  fed  upon  what 
they  were  forbidden  to  eat,  and  to  teach  them  temperance. 
Tertullian,  one  of  the  ancient  fathers,  who  lived  soon  after 
the  days  of  the  apostle,  says,  "  If  the  law  takes  away  the 
use  of  some  sorts  of  meat,  and  pronounces  creatures  to  be 
unclean  which  before  were  held  to  be  quite  otherwise,  let 
us  consider  that  the  design  was  to  accustom  the  Jews  to 
temperance,  and  look  upon  it  as  a  restraint  laid  upon  glut- 


44  JEWISH  NATION. 

tons,  who  hankered  after  the  cucumbers  and  melons  of 
Egypt,  while  they  were  eating  the  food  of  angels."  To 
think  a  great  deal  about  eating  and  drinking  is  wicked,  and 
every  one  must  despise  those  who  thus  indulge  themselves. 

Lane  describes  the  food  of  the  modern  Egyptians  as 
chiefly  bread,  made  with  millet  or  maize,  with  new  cheese, 
eggs,  small  salted  fish,  cucumbers,  and  melons,  a  great  va- 
riety of  gourds,  onions,  leeks,  chick  peas,  lupins,  lentils, 
other  vegetable  substances,  and  dates. 

Many  sorts  of  vegetable  food  are  represented  in  the 
ancient  sculptures  of  Egypt. 

Salt  was,  and  is,  used  to  flavor  food,  though  not  so  con- 
stantly as  in  Europe.  But  Park  says,  in  the  interior  coun- 
tries of  Africa,  salt  is  the  greatest  of  luxuries ;  children 
suck  a  piece  of  rock-salt  as  our  children  do  sugar.  To 
say,  "  a  man  eats  salt  with  his  food,  is  saying  he  is  a  rich 
man."  He  adds,  "The  long  use  of  vegetable  food  creates 
so  painful  a  longing  for  salt,  that  no  words  can  sufficiently 
describe  it."  Job  (vi,  6)  asks,  "  Can  that  which  is  unsa- 
vory be  eaten  without  salt?"  The  eagerness  of  cattle  foi 
salt,  shows  that  it  is  needed  with  vegetable  food. 

FUEL. 

The  coals  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  were  coals  of  wood,  or 
charcoal.  They  also  used  thorns,  and  wood  of  all  sorts, 
Psa.  Iviii,  9 ;  Eccl.  vii,  6.  They  collected  the  dung  of 
cows  and  other  animals,  (Ezek,  iv,  15,)  and  dried  it  for  the 
purpose,  as  is  still  the  custom  in  the  East,  where  wood  is 
often  very  scarce.  Paxton  saw  a  woman  thus  collecting 
it  from  the  oxen  employed  in  a  threshing-floor.  Grass  also 
is  mentioned.  Matt,  vi,  30 ;  but  usually  the  vine  branches 
and  other  refuse,  that  was  not  serviceable  in  other  ways, 
which  explains  our  Lord's  solemn  warning,  John  xv,  6  : 
see  also  Ezek.  xv,  6  ;  Isa.  xlvii,  14  ;  Matt,  iii,  12.  These  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  fuel  are  spoken  of  in  several  places  in  the 
Bible.  They  are  all  such  as  burn  away  very  quickly ;  so  that 
the  sudden  manner  in  which  destruction  comes  upon  sin- 
ners, by  the  wrath  of  God  against  sin,  is  frequently  ex- 
plained by  referring  to  them.  The  collecting  of  fuel  is 
laborious  and  tedious ;  children  are  now  often  employed  in  it 
as  of  old.  Lam.  v,  13.  Jowett  describes  one  of  four  years 
old  bending  beneath  its  little  burden. 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  45 


WATER  AND  OTHER  DRINK. 

The  usual  drink  among  the  Jews  was  water.  There 
were  numerous  pubhc  wells  and  fountains,  besides  those 
belonging  to  private  houses.  It  was  by  the  side  of  one  of 
the  former  that  Jesus  sat  (John  iv,  6,  1)  while  he  dis- 
coursed with  the  woman  of  Samaria.  At  that  very  well  a 
woman  who  had  come  to  draw  water,  lowered  her  pitcher 
into  the  well,  and  gave  some  to  Rae  Wilson.  We  read  that 
Jesus  was  wearied,  and  sat  thus  on  the  well,  like  one  wea- 
ried with  a  long  journey  on  a  very  hot  day.  How  this  ought 
to  affect  us  !  He  who  was  God,  the  Creator  of  all  things, 
took  upon  him  our  nature,  with  all  its  infirmities,  sin  ex- 
cepted, (Heb.  iv,  15,)  and  endured  all,  that  we  might  be 
saved  from  the  punishment  our  sins  deserve. 

The  importance  and  value  of  wells  of  water  in  the  East 
are  very  great.  In  the  days  of  the  patriarchs  there  were 
contests  between  Abraham  and  Abimelech,  and  between 
Isaac  and  the  PhiHstines  for  wells,  Gen.  xxi,  25  ;  xxvi,  18. 
Moses  found  protection  from  Jethro  on  account  of  the 
assistance  he  rendered  ito  his  daughters,  when  some  shep- 
herds attempted  to  drive  them  away,  and  possess  them- 
selves of  the  water  they  had  drawn,  Exod.  ii,  16,  17.  The 
woman  of  Samaria  seems  to  have  thought  the  possession  of 
a  well  a  proof  of  Jacob's  greatness  and  power,  John  iv,  12. 
Caleb's  daughter  (Judg.  i,  14,  15)  considered  her  father's 
gift  of  land  as  not  complete  without  springs  of  water. 

Belzoni  describes  his  arriving  at  a  well  at  midnight, 
where  he  found  two  women  with  a  flock  which  they  drove 
hastily  away,  but  were  prevailed  to  return,  and  remain  till 
daylight.  The  noise  of  archers  in  the  places  of  drawing 
water,  is  alluded  to  by  Deborah,  Judg.  v,  1 1 .  Irby  and 
Mangles  found  a  party  of  Arabs  at  a  well,  levying  contribu- 
tions from  all  passers. 

In  England,  there  is  little  idea  of  the  value  of  water  in 
those  hot  and  dry  countries ;  but  the  want  of  it  is  veiy 
severely  felt  there.  The  wells  are  often  secured,  as  in  Haran, 
Gen.  xxix,  2,  3  ;  Psa.  xlii,  1  ;  so  are  the  springs  or  sources 
of  choice  streams,  Sol.  Song  iv,  12.  Rachel  probably  had 
the  command  over  the  well,  for  it  was  not  opened  till  she 
came.  David,  when  expressing  in  the  strongest  manner  his 
desire  for  the  Lord,  referred  to  this.     When  he  was  in  the 


46  JEWISH  NATION. 

wilderness  of  Judali,  lie  longed  for  the  water  from  the  well 
of  Bethlehem,  which  he  used  to  drink,  1  Chron.  xi,  IT.  His 
soul  feeling  a  strong  desire  for  the  presence  of  the  Lord,  he 
also  thus  expresses  himself :  "  O  God,  thou  art  my  God  ; 
early  will  I  seek  thee :  my  soul  thirsteth  for  thee,  my  flesh 
longeth  for  thee  in  a  dry  and  thirsty  land,  where  no  water 
is,"  Psa.  Ixiii,  1. 

The  gift  of  a  cup  of  cold  water  in  Christ's  name  is  not  to 
be  forgotten,  Mark  xi,  41.  Lane  describes  the  water-car- 
riers in  Egypt  as  often  paid  to  distribute  water.  Their  cry 
frequently  is,  "  0  may  God  compensate  me."  It  is  thus 
offered  in  India  from  charitable  motives. 

Our  Lord,  referring  to  the  manner  in  which  water  had 
been  alluded  to  in  many  parts  of  the  Old  Testament,  spoke 
of  himself  to  the  woman,  as  able  to  give  that  water  which 
would  cause  those  who  drink  it  never  to  thirst  again,  John 
iv,  14.  If  my  readers  thirst  for  this  living  water,  they  may 
remember  Christ's  own  declaration :  "In  the  last  day,  that 
great  day  of  the  feast,  Jesus  stood  and  cried,  saying.  If  any 
man  thirst,  let  him  come  unto  me  and  drink,"  John  vii,  37. 
Of  course,  he  did  not  there  refer  to  "common  water :  the  in- 
fluences of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  the  fullness  of  grace  in 
Christ,  are  meant.  These  blessings  we  need  as  much  as  the 
Jews  did  ;  they  are  off'ered  to  us  as  freely  ;  and  yet,  strange 
to  say,  there  are  many  who  will  not  quench  their  thirst,  but 
prefer  to  go  on  in  sin,  till,  at  length,  it  consumes  them. 

The  well  at  Cana  of  Galilee  is  an  overflowing  well,  sup- 
plying li\ing  or  running  water.  Gen.  xxvi,  19;  Jer.  ii,  13. 

Dra^ving  water  is  a  laborious  duty  in  the  East,  and  it  is 
still  performed  by  females,  particularly  the  younger.  Gen. 
xxvi,  11 ;  1  Sam.  ix,  11.  The  skins  and  pitchers  have  been 
already  described.  Burkhardt  describes  the  women  as 
having  to  fetch  water  from  a  distance  of  half  an  hour  to  the 
encampments  of  the  Arabs.  Robinson  saw  the  women  thus 
bringing  bottles  or  skins  of  water  from  the  fountains  near 
Jerusalem.  Perkins  describes  the  girls  as  sometimes  jostling 
each  other  till  the  pitcher  was  broken  at  the  fountain,  Eccl. 
xii,  6.  Hall  says  he  never  could  see  a  woman  in  India 
sitting  by  a  well,  resting  her  arm  upon  her  water-pot,  with- 
out thinking  of  the  woman  of  Samaria. 

In  Smyrna,  is  a  fountain  with  a  bowl  chained,  Eccl.  xii,  C  ; 
sometimes  this  may  be  seen  in  Europe.     The  deep  wells 


MANNERS   AND    CUSTOMS.  47 

and  cisterns  often  had  wheels  to  draw  up  the  skins  or 
jars  of  water.  M'Cheyne  describes  one  worked  by  a 
camel  at  Khanounes.  The  well  of  Joseph  at  Cairo  is  so 
called  from  a  Sultan,  not  from  the  son  of  Jacob  ;  it  has  a 
broad  path-way  down  to  the  water.  The  reservoirs  of 
water  in  India  have  steps  to  them. 

Much  more  might  be  said  about  water.  The  reader 
should  refer  to  Isa.  xii,  3  ;  xliv,  3  ;  Jer.  ii,  13 ;  Zech.  xiii,  1 ; 
xiv,  8  ;  and  other  passages.  Also,  remember  the  distress 
the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness  were  in  for  water,  and 
how  God  was  pleased  to  supply  them  by  a  miracle,  which 
the  apostle  Paul  declares  refers  to  Christ:  see  Exod. 
xvii,  6  ;  Num.  xx,  11 ;  1  Cor.  x,  4. 

In  Egypt  the  inhabitants  were  chiefly  supplied  with 
water  from  the  river  Nile,  which  travelers  say  is  most 
excellent ;  so  that,  when  the  Egyptians  are  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, they  continually  speak  of  the  pleasure  they  shall  have 
when  they  return  home,  and  drink  again  the  water  of  the 
Nile.  How  great  then  must  have  been  the  plague  with 
which  they  were  afflicted,  when  the  water  of  their  favorite 
river,  even  in  pots  and  jars,  was  turned  into  blood,  so  that 
"they  loathed  it!"  Exod.  vii,  17.  This  recollection  must 
also  have  made  the  waters  of  Marah  taste  very  unpleasant, 
Exod.  XV,  23. 

The  Jews  had  some  other  sorts  of  drink  as  well  as  water 
and  wine :  the  strong  drink,  (Lev.  x,  9 ;  Judg.  xiii,  4 ; 
and  in  other  places,)  means  any  fermented  liquor,  whether 
prepared  from  corn,  or  dates,  or  grapes,  or  anything  else. 
The  robb,  or  sirup  from  grapes,  is  called  dipse,  and  is  much 
used  in  Syria  ;  this  is  included  under  the  name  of  honey  in 
the  Bible,  probably  in  Gen.  xhii,  1 1 .  The  term  "  any  honey," 
(Lev.  ii,  11,)  seems  to  include  this  sirup  of  grapes  or  dates, 
as  well  as  the  honey  of  bees.  Sometimes  the  juice  of 
grapes  was  drunk  when  fresh  pressed,  not  fermented, 
Gen.  xl,  11. 

The  value  and  use  of  wine,  and  similar  liquors,  as  a  me- 
dicine or  cordial,  are  spoken  of  in  many  texts,  Judg.  ix,  13  ; 
Psa.  civ,  15  ;  but  the  evil  consequences  of  drunkenness 
and  excess  are  frequently  still  more  strongly  noticed,  Prov. 
xxiii,  29-32;  Isa.  v,  11-22;  Rom.  xiii,  13;  Gal.  v,  21  ; 
and,  what  is  more  impressive,  we  find  instances  recorded 
which  show  the  evil  consequences  of  "  following  wine  and 


48  JEWISH  NATION. 

strong  drink."  Thus  we  read  of  the  case  of  Noah,  Gen. 
ix,  21  ;  so  that  there  cannot  be  any  doubt  on  the  subject. 

Morier  and  Buckingham  have  described  the  drinking 
parties  of  the  Persians,  who  indulge  their  intemperance. 
The  former  was  invited  to  join  a  party  drinking  near  the 
road- side,  as  early  as  seven  in  the  morning,  and  says,  "  We 
found  that  the  Persians  esteem  the  morning  the  best  time 
for  beginning  to  drink  wine,  by  which  means  they  carry 
on  their  excess  till  night."  An  illustration  of  Isaiah 
v.  11,  &c. 

There  were  some  among  the  Jews  who  abstained  wholly 
from  wine  and  strong  drink,  probably  from  being  aware  of 
the  danger  of  indulging  therein.  This,  also,  appears  to 
have  been  the  reason  why  the  Rechabites,  who  were  stran- 
gers in  the  land  of  Judea,  did  the  same,  Jer.  xxxv,  6-9. 
The  descendants  of  the  Rechabites  exist  as  a  separate  peo- 
ple at  the  present  day.  We  may,  from  hence,  gather  a 
useful  lesson,  not  only  to  avoid  this  evil,  but  also  to  keep  a 
strict  watch  upon  ourselves,  and  to  abstain  from  all  things 
which  would  lead  us  to  sin.  But  let  us  beware  how  we 
resist  sin  in  our  own  strength ;  let  us  remember  the  awful 
fall  of  the  apostle  Peter,  and  look  continually  to  the  Sa- 
viour for  fresh  supplies  of  grace  and  strength,  seeking  to 
walk  soberly,  diligently,  and  righteously  in  this  evil  world, 
Tit.  ii,  12. 

MANNER  OF  EATING. 

In  ancient  times  it  was  the  custom,  among  the  patriarchs 
and  others,  frequently  to  take  their  meals  out  of  doors. 
This  is  often  done  in  the  East  at  the  present  day,  when  all 
who  pass  by  are  invited  to  partake.  The  governor  of  an 
Egyptian  village  is  described  by  Pococke  as  giving  a  feast, 
at  which  there  was  a  continued  succession  of  guests,  till  the 
whole  was  eaten.  He  mentions  Arab  rulers  as  dining  in 
the  street,  and  caUing  to  all  passers  to  partake,  even  beg- 
gars, as  Luke  xiv,  13  :  see  also  Luke  xiv,  12-14.  The 
angels  sat  under  a  tree  while  they  ate  the  food  which 
Abraham  prepared  for  them,  Gen.  xviii,  8.  There  are 
many  instances  of  this  in  the  Gospels ;  and  it  is  usual 
among  Eastern  nations  in  the  present  day.  At  Philadel- 
phia, Chandler  was  invited  by  a  family  sitting  at  their  re- 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  49 

past,  under  some  trees,  near  a  well  of  water,  to  alight  and 
partake,  as  Zech.  iii,  10.  The  regular  meals  were,  dinner 
a  little  before  noon,  and  supper  in  the  evening.  The  latter 
was  the  principal  meal ;  see  Mark  vi,  21.  Martha  and 
Mary's  entertainment  to  Jesus  was  a  supper,  John  xii,  2  : 
see  also  Luke  xiv,  16.  Our  Lord's  intercourse  with  those 
who  love  him  is  described  as  a  supper.  Rev.  iii,  20.  The 
feast  of  the  passover  was  in  the  evening. 

The  Hebrews  did  not  eat  with  the  neighboring  nations. 
We  are  not  told  in  the  Bible  when  they  began  to  separate 
themselves  in  this  manner ;  but  it  was  the  custom  in 
Joseph's  time,  although  in  that  instance  it  appears  to  have 
arisen  from  objections  on  the  part  of  the  Egyptians  :  see 
Gen.  xliii,  32.  The  Jews  in  our  Saviour's  time  did  not  eat 
with  the  Samaritans,  John  iv,  9  ;  and  they  objected  to  our 
Lord's  eating  with  publicans  and  sinners.  Matt,  ix,  11. 
This  custom  was  so  strictly  observed,  that  when  God  was 
about  to  extend  his  Church  to  the  Gentiles,  he  sent  an  es- 
pecial vision  to  St.  Peter,  to  show  that  it  might  be  discon- 
tinued. Peter  was  blamed  by  the  other  apostles  for  eat- 
ing with  Cornelius,  Acts  xi,  3  ;  and  from  several  passages 
in  the  Epistles,  we  find  that  the  early  Christians  abstained 
from  meat  offered  unto  idols.  As  these  sacrifices  were 
offered  at  all  solemn  feasts,  and  on  many  other  occasions 
connected  with  idolatrous  practices,  the  Christians  separa- 
ted from  eating  with  the  heathens  in  general,  and  some- 
times were  over  scrupulous,  1  Cor.  x,  25-28. 

Although  these  ceremonial  observances  were  not  enjoined 
on  the  early  Christians  among  the  Gentiles,  yet  the  apostle 
Paul  cautions  against  evil  arising  to  others  from  using  this 
liberty.  Much  care  should  be  taken  by  strong-minded  be- 
lievers, not  to  give  occasions  for  mistake  to  weaker  brethren, 
1  Cor.  viii,  V-13;  x,  23,  32,  33. 

It  is  still  the  custom  in  China,  Persia,  and  many  other 
countries,  for  the  guests  to  have  little  tables  or  trays 
placed  on  the  floor,  upon  which  dishes  are  set  for  them. 
In  India  many  persons  never  eat  out  of  the  same  dish  as 
others,  beheving  it  would  be  sinful  to  do  so  ;  and  thinking 
that  their  dishes  are  polluted  and  spoiled  if  touched  by  per- 
sons of  another  religion.  If  so  touched,  they  break  them, 
as  the  Jews  were  to  break  their  earthen  vessels  when 
touched  by  an  unclean  animal.      This  assists  in  (explaining 

3 


50 


JEWISH    NATION. 


the  apostle's  words  :  "  Touch  not ;  taste  not ;  handle  not." 
Dr.  Clarke  found  a  similar  custom  among  the  Turks.  He 
was  one  night  entertained  very  kindly  by  a  Turk  and  his 
family ;  after  leaving  the  place  the  next  morning,  Dr. 
Clarke  returned  for  a  book  he  had  left  behind,  when  he  found 
his  kind  host  and  all  the  family  employed  in  breaking  and 
throwing  away  the  earthenware  plates  and  dishes  from 
which  the  guests  had  eaten,  and  purifying  the  other  uten- 
sils and  articles  of  furniture  by  passing  them  through  fire 
or  water.  See  Lev.  xi,  33.  These  things  may  well  teach 
us,  that  the  followers  of  Christ  are  to  keep  themselves 
apart  from  the  world,  and  show  that  they  should  be  ready 
even  to  suffer  loss  that  they  may  do  so.  Indeed,  one  ob- 
ject of  the  numerous  injunctions  to  which  the  Israelites 
were  commanded  to  attend,  appears  to  have  been,  to  render 
it  a  matter  of  duty,  as  well  as  of  inclination,  to  keep  them- 
selv'es  a  separate  people. 


PERSIANS  AT    BREAKFAST. 


Elkanah,  the  father  of  Samuel,  distributed  portions  of 
provisions  to  each  of  his  wives  separately,  1  Sam.  i,  4,  5. 
It  is  still  the  custom  in  the  countries  of  the  East,  when 
there  is  more  than  one  wife,  for  each  to  be  separate  ^  as 
much  as  the  means  of  the  family  will  afford.     When  en- 


_ 


MANNERS   AND    CUSTOMS.  51 

tertaining  strangers,  as  well  as  in  eating  and  drinking  in 
general,  there  appears  to  have  been  great  plenty,  but  not 
much  care  or  delicacy  in  preparing  the  provision.  It  was 
deemed  a  mark  of  favor  to  send  the  guests  a  great  deal  of 
any  dish :  thus  the  mess  or  portion  which  Joseph  sent  to 
Benjamin  was  five  times  greater  than  was  sent  to  any 
other  of  his  brethren,  (Gen.  xliii,  34,)  and  probably  of  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  food. 

Lane  describes  a  round  tray  of  tinned  copper  being 
placed  on  a  stool,  so  as  to  serve  for  a  table ;  twelve  will 
crouch  round  such  a  tray,  three  feet  wide.  Each  then 
bares  his  arm  to  the  elbow,  saying  in  a  low  voice,  "  In  the 
name  of  God."  The  dishes  are  placed  upon  the  tray,  two 
or  three  at  a  time,  or  singly  in  succession,  the  guests  taking 
the  food  with  the  thumb  and  two  fingers  of  the  right  hand ; 
but  using  spoons,  or  perhaps  the  hollow  of  the  hand, 
for  liquids.  To  pull  out  a  morsel  and  offer  it  to  another  is 
deemed  polite.  Their  manner  of  eating  with  the  fingers  is 
more  delicate  than  would  be  supposed. 

It  is  still  an  honor  to  receive  a  portion  from  the  table  of 
the  master  of  the  feast,  if  he  is  a  great  man,  A  modem 
traveler,  who  dined  in  the  presence  of  an  Eastern  king,  de- 
scribes his  majesty  as  tearing  a  handful  of  meat  from  a 
quarter  of  lamb,  which  stood  before  him,  and  sending  it 
to  his  guest  as  a  mark  of  honor.  This  custom  also  pre- 
vails in  China.  Van  Braam,  the  Dutch  ambassador,  relates 
that  some  bones  of  mutton,  with  half  the  meat  gnawed  off", 
were  sent  to  him  from  the  table  of  the  emperor,  and  he 
was  told  it  was  a  great  honor !  Knives  and  forks  never 
have  been  used  in  the  East  as  among  us. 

This  renders  the  washing  of  hands  both  before  and  after 
meat  a  necessary  ceremony.  Hartley  describes  it  as  being 
done  by  a  servant  going  round  and  pouring  water  over  the 
hands  of  each  guest.  Thus  (2  Kings  iii,  11)  Elisha  is  de- 
scribed as  having  "  poured  water  on  the  hands  of  Elijah," 
to  signify  he  had  served  that  great  prophet  as  an  attendant. 
The  Jewish  washings  before  meat,  (Mark  vii,  1-4 ;  Luke 
xi,  37,  38,)  were  accompanied  by  pecuhar  ceremonies  of 
how  much  of  the  hand  and  arm  should  be  washed. 

It  was  not  usual  for  women  to  appear  and  eat  with  men : 
this  was  observ^ed  by  all  ranks.  Vashti  refused  to  come  to 
the  feast  of  the  king  Ahasuerus,  Esth,  i,  12,     The  ancient 


62 


JEWISH  NATION. 


WASHING   BEFORE  MEALS. 


Hebrews  probably  sat  down  upon  the  ground  at  meals, 
round  a  low  table  or  a  mat,  upon  which  the  dishes  were 
placed:  see  1  Sam.  xvi,  11,  marginal  reading,  and  Psalm 
cxxviii,  3.  The  Babylonians  and  Persians  used  to  recline 
or  lie  down  upon  table  beds,  something  hke  our  sofas,  while 
they  were  eating ;  and  some  among  the  Jews,  after  a  time, 
adopted  this  custom,  Amos  vi,  4-7.  The  guests  at  the 
royal  banquets  or  feasts  (Esth.  i,  6  ;  vii,  8)  were  placed  on 
beds.  Our  Lord  reclined  in  this  manner  when  Mary  an- 
ointed his  feet,  (John  xii,  3,)  and  when  the  beloved  apostle 
John  leaned  his  head  upon  his  bosom,  (John  xiii,  25,)  at 
the  last  supper.  His  feet  were  not  placed  like  ours  when 
we  sit,  but  as  he  reclined  they  were  easily  touched,  or 
wiped,  by  any  one  coming  behind  him.  (See  the  represent- 
ations of  reclining  at  table,  p.  18.)  Modern  travelers  in  Ju- 
dea  have  noticed,  that  while  persons  are  at  dinner,  others 
freqently  enter  the  room,  sit  down  behind  the  guests,  and 
converse  with  them,  as  the  woman  mentioned,  Luke  vii,  38. 
The  Eastern  attendants  are  accustomed  to  wait  with  much 
respect,  looking  for  mere  signs,  often  scarcely  perceived  by 
a  guest.  This  illustrates  the  eyes  of  servants  looking  to  the 
hand  of  their  master,  (Psa.  cxxiii,  2,)  and  shows  how  we 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  53 

should  look  unto  our  Lord.  M'Cheyne  describes  the  ser- 
vants, who  brought  pipes  and  coffee,  as  "watching  the 
slightest  motion"  of  the  hands  of  the  guests.  Jowett  and 
Lane  describe  the  wives  and  females  of  the  family  attending 
till  the  master  has  done  his  meal,  before  they  partake.  Thus 
Sarah,  (Gen.  xviii,  9,)  and  Martha,  John  xii,  2, 

The  following  custom,  observed  by  the  modem  Jews  after 
the  practice  of  their  forefathers,  strongly  reminds  us  of  what 
passed  at  the  last  supper.  Before  they  sit  down,  they  wash 
their  hands  very  carefully,  like  the  Pharisees  of  old,  Mark 
vii,  3 ;  they  say  that  it  is  necessary  to  do  so.  A  blessing 
is  then  asked.  The  master,  or  chief  person,  takes  a  loaf^ 
and,  breaking  it,  says,  "  Blessed  art  thou,  0  Lord  our  God, 
the  King  of  the  world,  who  producest  bread  out  of  the 
earth."  The  guests  answer,  *'  Amen,"  and  the  bread  is 
distributed  to  them.  He  then  takes  the  vessel  which  holds 
the  wine  in  his  right  hand,  and  says,  "  Blessed  art  thou,  O 
Lord  our  God,  King  of  the  world,  who  hast  created  the 
fruit  of  the  vine."  The  23d  Psalm  is  then  repeated.  When 
the  meal  is  finished,  the  master  takes  a  piece  of  bread, 
which  has  been  left  on  purpose,  and  filling  a  glass  or  cup 
with  wine,  says,  "  Let  us  bless  Him  of  whose  benefits  we 
have  partaken :"  the  company  reply,  "  Blessed  be  He  who 
has  heaped  his  favors  on  us,  and  has  now  fed  us  on  his 
goodness."  The  master  then  repeats  a  prayer,  thanking 
God  for  his  many  benefits  granted  to  Israel,  entreating  him 
to  have  pity  upon  Jerusalem  and  the  temple,  to  restore  the 
throne  of  David,  to  send  Elias  and  the  Messiah,  and  to  de- 
hver  them  from  their  low  state.  The  guests  all  answer, 
"Amen,"  and  repeat  Psalm  xxxiv,  9,  10 :  then  each  guest 
drinks  a  little  of  the  wine  that  is  left,  and  goes  from  the 
table. 

These  customs  are  appointed  to  be  observed  by  the 
modem  Jews,  as  well  as  those  of  old;  but,  Hke  asking 
a  blessing  among  those  who  are  called  Christians,  it  is  too 
often  forgotten.  An  author  well  observes,  "A  graceless 
meal  cannot  be  expected  to  prove  a  wholesome  meal." 

It  is  still  usual  among  Eastern  nations  to  break  their 
bread  into  small  pieces,  and  dip  them  into  such  dishes  as 
contain  liquids.  The  Israelites  used  to  do  so.  Boaz  told 
Ruth  to  dip  her  morsel  in  the  vinegar,  Ruth  ii,  14.  By 
giving  one  of  these  sops  to  Judas,  our  Lord  pointed  him 


54  JEWISH  NATION. 

out  as  the  person  who  would  betray  him,  Matt,  xxvi,  23 ; 
John  xiii,  26. 

Jowett  allowed  his  European  prejudices  to  influence  hira, 
and  was  annoyed  by  seeing  Arab  fingers  in  the  dish,  and 
still  more  when  his  host,  on  finding  a  dainty  morsel,  apphed 
it  to  his  mouth.  He  rightly  says,  "  This  was  true  Syrian 
courtesy  and  hospitality ;  and  had  I  been  sufficiently  well 
bred,  my  mouth  would  have  opened  to  receive  it."  He 
notices  the  tearing  the  cake  of  bread,  and  sopping  up  the 
fluid  and  vegetables  in  the  dish. 

The  invitations  to  a  feast  are  mentioned  in  Scripture,  as 
illustrating  the  invitations  to  accept  the  Gospel  glad-tidings, 
Luke  xiv,  1 V.  It  is  customary  in  the  East  to  send  messen- 
gers to  say  the  feast  is  ready ;  and  when  the  entertainment 
is  over,  to  call  all  that  pass,  in  the  name  of  God,  to  come 
and  partake,  Luke  xiv,  13.  Morier  and  others  describe  this ; 
and  the  invitations  having  been  previously  given  and  accept- 
ed, it  would  be  rude  to  send  an  excuse  then ;  this  explains 
Luke  xiv,  16-24.  At  these  feasts  there  is  still  much  cere- 
mony about  taking  places,  Luke  xiv,  Y-ll.  Morier  saw 
the  governor  of  Kashan,  arriving  late,  had  taken  a  low  seat, 
but  was  requested  to  come  up  higher. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

TRAVELING. 

There  were  no  inns  like  those  of  Europe  for  travelers  in 
Judea  and  the  neighboring  nations,  so  that  the  people 
were  obliged  to  carry  everything  they  wanted  with  them, 
and  to  wait  upon  themselves,  or  upon  each  other.  For 
this  reason,  as  well  as  to  protect  each  other,  they  usually 
traveled  in  companies.  They  did  so  when  they  went  up  to 
Jerusalem  at  the  great  festivals,  directed  Exod.  xxiii,  1*7. 
Psa.  Ixxxiv,  6,  ^,  is  descriptive  of  this  custom.  Joseph  and 
Mary  were  returning  home  in  one  of  these  companies  when 
they  missed  Jesus,  Luke  ii,  42-44.  The  Psalms  called  the 
Psalms  of  Degrees,  Psa.  cxx  to  cxxxiv,  are  supposed  to 
have  been  sung  by  the  devout  Jews,  while  traveling  to  Je- 
rusalem, on  these  occasions.  Thus  they  now  travel  in  large 
bodies  as  caravans  for  trade,  or  on  the  pilgrimage  to  Mecca, 


MAN^^ERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  55 

in  some  respects  like  the  Israelites  on  their  march  from 
Egypt ;  and  like  them,  at  first  setting  out,  they  are  in  haste 
and  some  confusion,  Exod.  xii,  33-39. 

Although  there  are  no  inns  like  ours  in  the  East,  there 
are  places  called  caravansaries,  in  which  travelers  rest  them- 
selves, and  find  shelter  for  their  cattle.  These  are  large 
buildings,  consisting  of  a  court-yard,  with  small  rooms 
around  it.  They  are  without  furniture,  and  the  travelers 
take  possession  of  them  on  paying  a  sum  of  money  to  the 
keeper  of  the  caravansary.  Sometimes  there  are  small 
shops  for  the  sale  of  food  and  other  necessaries.  In  the  veiy 
early  times,  as  when  Jacob's  sons  returned  from  Egypt,  the 
inns  mentioned  (Gen.  xliii,  21)  were  only  places  which,  on 
account  of  some  trees  and  water,  were  used  by  travelers  for 
halting-places.  Christ  was  born  in  one  of  the  caravansaries 
at  Bethlehem ;  and,  as  all  the  rooms  were  full,  his  parents 
were  obhged  to  take  shelter  in  a  cattle-shed,  or  stable, 
Luke  ii,  1. 

Some  travelers  apply  the  term  caravansary  to  these 
places  on  the  roadside  or  open  country,  while  such  build- 
ings in  towns  are  called  khans.  Where  neither  exist,  fre- 
quently one  or  more  of  the  inhabitants  are  accustomed  to 
receive  travelers.  Arundel  describes  the  objects  and 
scenes  witnessed  by  travelers  when  resting  at  a  khan,  or 
the  more  private  house  called  menzil,  as  suggesting  many 
of  the  illustrations  introduced  by  our  Lord  in  his  discom'ses 
while  traveling, — such  as  the  camel-driver  using  his  needle, 
Mark  X,  25.  The  entertainment  provided  for  the  traveler 
used  to  be  supplied  by  the  neighbors  in  turn,  or  by  those 
who  offered ;  but  traveling  has  now  become  so  frequent 
that  Europeans  commonly  make  payment,  or  send  to  buy 
the  food  on  their  anival.  In  the  remote  villages,  such  an 
offer  is  still  considered  an  insult.  In  the  towns  payment 
is  expected ;  but  the  Bedouins  are  not  yet  used  to  it. 

Many  of  the  caravansaries  have  been  built  as  acts  of 
charity;  some  have  been  very  beautiful  structures,  but 
often  are  neglected  and  going  to  ruin. 

In  general,  travelers,  wherever  they  went,  were  received 
by  the  inhabitants  with  great  kindness.  Thus  Abraham 
and  Lot  received  the  angels,  supposing  them  to  have  been 
travelers.  Gen.  xviii  and  xix  ;  and  Gideon,  Judg.  vi,  11-19. 
St.  Paul  refers  to  their  receiving  angels  without  knowing  it 


56  JEWISH  NATION. 

at  first,  (Heb.  xiii,  2,)  to  encourage  Christians  to  be  kind  to 
strangers.  Our  Lord  himself  commends  this,  Matt,  xxv, 
35  ;  and  the  first  Christians  were  very  attentive  to  practice 
it.  St.  Peter  requires  it,  1  Pet.  iv,  9 ;  and  St.  Paul  does 
the  same,  1  Tim.  iii,  2 ;  Tit.  i,  8  ;  and  in  other  passages. 

Most  of  the  travehng  mentioned  in  the  Bible  was  on 
foot.  The  journeys  of  our  Lord,  and  of  his  apostles,  all 
appear  to  have  been  so  made.  The  taking  up  carriages, 
(Acts  xxi,  15,)  means  taking  up  their  luggage  or  baggage, 
not  getting  into  coaches,  or  what  we  call  carriages. 

When  on  journeys,  their  clothes  would  be  tucked  up,  or 
"their  loins  girded."  They  usually  carried  staves  in  their 
hands,  Num.  xxi,  18  ;  Matt,  x,  10  ;  often  a  second,  lest  one 
should  break. 

In  traveling  they  wore  sandals  to  protect  their  feet ;  the 
necessity  for  these  being  strong  for  travelers  in  the  desert 
is  shown  by  the  expression,  "shoes  of  iron  and  brass," 
Deut.  xxxiii,  25 :  this  text  also  denotes  God's  care  for  his 
people.  The  Bedouins  carry  small  pincers  to  draw  out  the 
thorns  from  their  feet.  Burkhardt  describes  an  Arab  as 
borrowing  a  pair  of  sandals  belonging  to  his  friend  which 
he  knew  were  hidden  under  a  date-bush :  he  impressed  his 
foot  upon  the  sand  close  by,  that  his  friend  might  know 
who  had  taken  them,  his  foot  being  turned,  so  as  to  show 
the  direction  in  which  he  was  going  to  travel. 

The  chariots  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  were  little,  if  at  all, 
better  than  carts.  The  nobility  even  of  England  had  no 
better  wheel  conveyances  three  hundred  years  ago.  The 
chariot  in  which  the  eunuch  rode  (Acts  viii,  28)  was  pro- 
bably something  of  this  sort. 

Wheel  carriages  are  almost  unknown  in  the  East ; 
persons  are  carried  in  a  palanquin,  or  fitter,  by  men,  or 
placed  on  poles,  which  are  slung  to  the  backs  of  camels 
or  mules.  Females  often  ride  short  distances  on  asses, 
driven  by  a  servant  on  foot,  as  the  Shunammite,  2  Kings 
iv,  24. 

The  camel  is  often  mentioned  in  Scripture,  particularly 
in  the  Book  of  Genesis.  It  is  the  most  useful  animal  for 
traveling  in  the  East  through  the  sandy  deserts,  as  it  can 
go  for  a  long  time  without  water,  and  its  feet  are  particu- 
larly adapted  to  those  countries.  The  women  usually  tra- 
vel in  a  sort  of  blanket  or  cradle ;  Rebekah  and  her  dam- 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  57 

sels  no  doubt  did  so,  Gen.  xxiv,  61,  65.     The  camel  in  the 
East  is  expressively  called  "  the  ship  of  the  desert." 

When  traveling  as  messengers  they  often  use  dromeda- 
ries, which  are  swifter  than  horses,  and  can  be  trained  to 
proceed  more  than  a  hundred  miles  a  day.  Job  speaks  of 
the  swiftness  of  a  post,  ix,  25. 

Asses  were  used  by  persons  of  rank,  Judg.  v,  10;  x,  4 ; 
xii,  14;  also  for  traveling.  Josh,  ix,  4 ;  1  Kings  xiii,  23; 
2  Kings  iv,  24 ;  2  Sam.  xvi,  2 ;  1  Sam.  xxv,  20.  Our 
Lord  himself  rode  upon  an  ass,  in  his  triumphal  entry  into 
Jerusalem.  The  patriarchs  had  no  horses.  Egypt  was 
famous  for  them,  but  there  were  none  or  very  few  in  Ju- 
dea.  The  Jewish  ruler  was  forbidden  to  procure  them, 
Deut.  xvii,  16.  This  prohibition  was  to  prevent  the  Jews 
from  trusting  in  their  own  strength  as  a  nation,  and  to 
hinder  their  commerce  with  Egypt,  whence  Solomon  pro- 
cured his  horses,  1  Kings  x,  28  ;  2  Chron.  ix,  28.  The 
Arabs  now  are  famous  for  their  horses,  which  are  remark- 
ably swift. 

The  ancient  Greeks  were  very  attentive  to  strangers,  as 
we  find  from  Homer,  and  several  other  old  writers ;  any 
instance  of  unkindness  or  injury  done  to  a  stranger  was 
considered  a  very  great  crime.  Several  cases  of  this  sort 
are  mentioned  in  the  Bible;  and  the  attention  paid  to 
strangers  among  the  Arabs  is  strongly  proved  by  many  in- 
stances stated  by  modem  travelers. 

Captains  Irby  and  Mangles  relate,  that,  on  two  occasions, 
they  arrived  at  Arab  camps  very  late.  They  halted  before 
a  tent,  but  found  the  owner  and  his  family,  having  arranged 
their  carpets,  had  retired  to  rest  for  the  night.  It  was  sur- 
prising, they  say,  to  see  the  good-humor  with  which  all 
rose  again,  and  kindled  a  fire,  the  wife  kneading  the  dough,  ^ 
and  preparing  supper ;  while  the  Arabs,  who  accompanied* 
them  as  guides,  made  no  apology,  though  the  nights  were 
bitter  cold,  but  received  all  as  a  matter  of  course. 

Robinson  relates  an  amusing  instance  of  the  regard  for 
hospitality  proving  disadvantageous.  His  Arab  guides  pur- 
chased a  kid  for  supper,  and  proceeded  to  kill  and  dress  it, 
on  pitching  their  tent  at  night ;  but  they  -vyere  followed  by 
the  Bedouins  who  had  sold  it,  and  who  thus  became  their 
guests ;  it  was  necessary  to  give  them  the  chief  portion ; 
and  those  who  had  bought  and  paid  for  the  kid  had  only 
3* 


58  JEWISH  NATION. 

the  fragments  !  Stephens  describes  one  of  his  Arab  guides 
being  recognized  by  a  woman,  who,  on  account  of  this  her 
friend,  led  them  to  her  tent,  where  they  were  hospitably 
received  by  her  husband.  The  tent,  though  near  their 
road,  was  so  placed  as  to  be  concealed  from  view,  proba- 
bly to  escape  the  notice  of  travelers. 

Eastern  travelers  often  have  noticed,  that  to  eat  with  a 
stranger  is  promising  him  security  and  protection.  Nie- 
buhr  therefore  recommends  to  secure  the  friendship  of  a 
guide  by  a  meal  as  soon  as  possible.  The  expression, 
Psa.  xh,  9,  shows  the  stress  also  laid  on  this  in  former 
times. 

Shaw  describes  an  Arab  as  usually,  when  the  meal  was 
prepared,  going  to  a  rising  ground,  calling  aloud  upon  all 
to  come  and  partake  of  it,  though  no  one  was  within  hear- 
ing. See  Prov.  ix,  3.  Job  speaks  of  eating  alone  as  a 
wrong  act.  Job  xxxi,  l7. 

Christians,  in  the  first  ages,  seldom  traveled  without  let- 
ters from  some  persons  well  known  to  the  brethren,  and 
they  were  sure  of  a  kind  reception  wherever  they  went. 
Calmet  thinks  that  the  second  and  third  Epistles  of  St. 
John  were  letters  of  this  sort.  When  a  person  had  once 
been  received  as  a  guest,  he  was  expected  to  call  again 
whenever  he  came  the  same  way  ;  those  who  received  him 
would  also  call  on  him,  if  they  visited  his  country.  Their 
children  continued  to  do  the  same;  and  they  provided 
themselves  with  some  token,  as  a  proof  of  this  friendship. 
It  was  usually  a  piece  of  lead  or  stone,  divided  in  half ;  one 
piece  was  kept  by  each  family,  and  produced  when  any  of 
them  visited  the  other.  Sometimes  a  name  v/as  written 
upon  it.  This  custom  seems  to  be  alluded  to  in  that  beau- 
tiful passage.  Rev.  ii,  17,  where  it  is  said,  "To  him  that 
overcometh  will  I  give  a  white  stone,  and  in  the  stone  a 
new  name  written,  which  no  man  knoweth  saving  he  that 
receiveth  it."  The  words  translated  "  a  white  stone,"  may 
be  considered  as  describing  one  of  these  tokens ;  the  mean- 
ing of  the  passage  appears  to  be,  that  the  faithful  should 
have  a  mark  or  token  given  them,  by  which  they  should 
hereafter  be  acknowledged  by  Christ  as  his  friends,  and 
I'eceived  into  his  favor.  The  "  new  name  written,  which 
no  man  knoweth  saving  he  that  receiveth  it,"  refers  to  that 
new  spirit  which  is  put  into  the  heart  of  those  who  are 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  59 

united  to  the  Saviour  by  a  new  and  living  faith,  and 
which  the  world  knoweth  not. 

The  possessors  of  these  tokens  kept  them  with  much  care, 
as  likely  to  be  of  great  service  in  any  future  time  of  need. 
Surely  that  inestimable  gift,  our  salvation,  is  a  token 
whereby  Christ's  followers  are  known  at  the  present  day  ; 
and  they  shall  be  known  by  it  at  the  great  day  of  his 
appearing 

As  in  former  times,  sandals  were  very  often  the  only 
covering  on  the  feet.  It  will  easily  be  supposed  that  travel- 
ers would  feel  very  uncomfortable  from  mud  and  dust, 
after  walking  any  distance ;  so  it  was  always  the  custom, 
when  a  guest  arrived,  that  the  servants  should  take  off  his 
sandals,  and  wash  his  feet,  Gen.  xviii,  4 ;  xix,  2  ;  xxiv,  32 ; 
Luke  vii,  44.  This  was  in  general  done  by  the  lowest 
servants ;  it  was  a  mark  of  great  humility  on  the  part  of 
the  master  of  a  family  if  he  did  it  himself,  as  well  as  a  great 
honor  to  the  person  whose  feet  he  washed.  This  may  ex- 
plain Avhat  John  the  Baptist  said,  Luke  iii,  16.  It  shows 
us  still  more  the  love  of  Christ  to  his  disciples ;  he  rose 
from  supper,  laid  aside  his  upper  garment,  tied  a  towel 
round  him,  and,  pouring  water  into  a  basin,  washed  his  dis- 
ciples' feet,  John  xiii,  4,  5.  It  may  explain  why  the  apostle 
Peter  was  so  unwilling  to  let  his  master  do  this  for  him. 

It  also  teaches  two  things: — 1.  If  Christ,  who  is  "over 
all,  God  blessed  forever,"  performed  this  mean  and  humble, 
though  kind  action  to  his  disciples,  how  ready  we  ought  to 
be  to  do  what  is  kind  to  each  other  ! — 2.  If  our  Lord  was 
so  mindful  of  his  disciples,  as  to  do  this  act  of  kindness  to 
them,  which  was  in  itself  of  so  httle  importance,  how  sure 
we  may  be  that  those  who  love  him  now  will  not  be  for- 
gotten in  any  of  the  events  of  their  lives  !  The  needing  to 
wash  the  feet  after  all  the  rest,  (John  xiii,  10,)  is  explained 
by  Malcolm,  who  saw  some  men,  after  bathing,  come  up 
from  the  river  or  tank,  and  then,  just  before  entering  the 
house,  rinse  their  feet,  dirtied  by  coming  up  from  the  bath. 

Martyn  remarked  the  degree  of  abasement  expressed  in 
the  act  of  washing  the  feet.  This  further  illustrates  1  Tim. 
V,  10,  and  the  reluctance  again  to  go  forth  into  the  mire, 
when  the  feet  are  washed,  Sol.  Song  v,  3. 

The  importance  of  guides  in  traveling  need  not  to  be 
dwelt  upon ;  even  when  miraculously  directed  as  to  their 


60  JEWISH  NATION. 

main  course  while  wandering  in  the  wilderness,  it  was 
desirable  for  the  Israelites  to  have  the  guidance  of  Hobab 
about  the  lesser  difficulties  of  the  way,  and  for  directing 
their  encampment,  Num.  x,  31.  Even  now  travelers  in 
the  East  often  place  a  stone  upon  another,  in  some  conspi- 
cuous place,  with  a  sort  of  prayer  for  their  safe  journey. 
Morier  witnessed  this,  and  it  reminded  him  of  Jacob's  prayer 
and  vow,  Gen.  xxviii,  18-22. 

Travelers  in  the  desert  often  speak  of  the  appearance  of 
waters  at  a  distance,  where  there  is  nothing  but  the  hot 
sand.  This  is  alluded  to  "as  the  waters  that  fail,"  or  "be 
not  sure,"  Jer.  xv,  18.  A  modern  traveler  thus  describes  it. 
*'  I  perceived  a  dark  strip  on  the  horizon,  and  asked  my  com- 
panion. He  looked,  and  presently  answered  that  water 
had  all  at  once  appeared  there ;  that  he  saw  the  motion  of 
the  waves,  and  tall  palms  bending  up  and  down  over  them, 
as  if  tossed  by  a  strong  wind."  They  galloped  towards  it. 
**  On  a  spot  where  the  bare  sands  spread  out  for  hundreds 
of  miles,  where  there  is  neither  tree  nor  shrub,  nor  a  trace 
of  water,  there  suddenly  appeared  before  us  groups  of  tall 
trees  girding  the  running  stream,  on  whose  waves  we  saw 
the  sunbeams  dancing.  Hills  clad  in  pleasant  green,  rose 
before  us  and  vanished  ;  small  houses,  and  towns  with  high 
walls  and  ramparts,  were  visible  among  the  trees.  Far  as 
we  rode  in  the  direction,  we  never  came  any  nearer  to  it ; 
the  whole  seemed  to  recoil  with  our  advance.  Never  had 
I  seen  any  landscape  so  vivid  as  this  seeming  one, — never 
water  so  bright,  or  trees  so  softly  green,  so  tall,  so  stately. 
We  could  well  conceive  how  the  despairing  wanderer,  who, 
with  burning  eyes,  thinks  he  gazes  on  water  and  human 
dwellings,  will  struggle  onwards  to  his  last  gasp  to  reach 
them."     Such  is  the  optical  deception  called  the  mirage. 

The  roads  in  the  East  are  usually  merely  tracks  ;  there 
are  some  exceptions  :  causeways  raised  over  difficult  places, 
and  roads  made  level  and  plain  when  a  king  or  great  man 
is  traveling.  Thus  Isaiah  xl,  3-5 ;  Ixii,  10.  Way-marks 
are  common,  as  Jer.  xxxi,  21. 


MANNERS  AND    CUSTOMS. 


61 


SHEPHERD    AND     HIS    FLOCK. 


CHAPTER  VIL 


CATTLE— AGRICULTURE — CULTIVATION  OF  THE  LAND — 
SOWING  AND  HARVEST— VINEYARDS — WINE  AND 
FRUITS. 

CATTLE  AND  AGRICULTURE. 

The  Jews  were  mostly  employed  in  agriculture  or  cultivat- 
ing the  ground,  and  in  tending  cattle.  Before  the  flood, 
we  read  of  Cain  and  Abel,  that  the  first  was  a  tiller  of  the 
ground,  and  the  latter  a  keeper  of  sheep,  Gen.  iv,  2.  Abra- 
ham, Isaac,  and  Jacob,  hved  in  this  manner,  chiefly  attend- 
ing to  their  flocks  and  herds,  as  many  of  the  tribes  among 
the  Arabs  do  at  the  present  day,  only  sowing  the  ground 
occasionally.  The  laws  given  to  Moses  encouraged  agricul- 
ture ;  but  nothing  about  trade  and  commerce  with  foreign 
nations  is  mentioned  for  many  hundred  years  after  the  chil- 


62  JEWISH   NATION. 

dren  of  Israel  were  settled  in  tlie  promised  land.  Their 
riches  consisted  chiefly  in  cattle  and  slaves,  or  servants,  who 
were  employed  in  tending  the  flocks  and  herds,  and  in  cul- 
tivating the  ground,  to  raise  a  sufficient  supply  of  the  fruits 
of  the  earth,  Gen.  xxvi,  12.  Abraham  and  Lot  had  such 
large  herds  of  cattle,  that  they  were  obliged  to  separate  to 
find  pasture  for  them,  Gen.  xiii,  6.  In  Gen.  xiv,  14,  it  is 
stated  that  Abraham  armed  three  hundred  and  eighteen  of 
his  servants,  or  slaves,  when  he  hastened  to  rescue  Lot  from 
those  who  had  led  him  away  captive.  These  slaves,  or 
servants,  however,  were  treated  very  difl'ercntly  from  the 
poor  slaves  of  modern  times.  They  were  treated  kindly,  as 
servants  of  the  family  ;  even  better,  in  many  respects,  than 
hired  servants. 

Jacob  had  a  vast  number  of  cattle  ;  this  appears  from 
many  passages  in  the  Bible.  To  persons  having  large  flocks 
and  herds,  wells  and  springs  of  water  were  very  valuable ; 
see   Gen.   xxi,  25;  xxvi,  15  ;  Judg.  i,  15  ;  for  rivers  and 


EASTERN  WOMEN  AT   A  WELL. 


brooks  are  not  plentiful  in  the  East.  This  has  been  already 
fully  noticed.  It  seldom  rains  there  except  during  one  part 
of  the  year. ,  In  the  greater  part  of  Egypt  rain  never  falls, 
and  the  fertility  of  the  soil  depends  upon  its  being  over- 
flowed by  the  Nile. 

Adam  brought  up  Cain  to  cultivate  or  till  the  ground, 
and  Abel  to  feed  sheep,  Gen.  iv,  2 :  in  the  same  chapter 


MANNERS  xiND    CUSTOMS.  63 

(verse  20)  we  read  that  Jabal  was  the  father  of  such  as 
have  cattle,  and  of  those  who  dwelt  in  tents.  In  those 
countries,  the  people  dwell  in  tents  at  the  present  day, 
as  stated  already.  Thus,  when  their  cattle  have  eaten  up  ail 
the  pasture  in  one  place,  they  easily  remove  to  some  other. 

The  manner  in  which  the  Arabs  travel  on  these  occa- 
sions, reminds  us  of  the  way  in  which  Jacob  journeyed. 
Gen.  xxxii.  Parsons  thus  describes  it : — "  First  went  the 
shepherds  and  goatherds,  with  the  sheep  and  goats  in  regu- 
lar flocks.  Then  followed  the  camels  and  asses,  with  the 
tents  and  furniture.  Next  came  the  old  men  and  the  women, 
with  the  boys  and  girls  on  foot.  The  little  children  were 
carried  by  the  women,  and  the  elder  children  carried  the 
lambs  and  kids.  Last  of  all  came  the  masters  of  the  fami- 
hes.  Between  each  family  there  was  a  space  of  a  hundred 
yards  or  more,  so  that  they  did  not  mix  or  get  confused 
with  each  other." 

Even  after  the  times  of  the  patriarchs,  the  greatest  men 
among  the  Jews  continued  to  be  shepherds  or  husbandmen. 
Moses  left  the  court  of  Pharaoh,  and  became  a  shepherd. 
He  was  keeping  the  flock  of  his  father-in-law  Vfhen  God 
first  appeared  to  him  in  the  bush,  Exod.  iii,  1,2.  Several 
of  the  judges  and  kings  had  followed  these  employments. 
Shamgar  appears  to  have  been  a  herdsman,  Judg,  iii,  31  ; 
and  Gideon  w^as  threshing  wheat  when  the  angel  appeared 
to  him,  Judg.  vi,  11.  Saul  continued  to  attend  a  herd  of 
cattle  after  he  was  appointed  king,  1  Sam.  xi,  5.  David 
was  a  shepherd.  Psalm  xxiii  evidently  was  written  by  a 
person  well  acquainted  with  a  shepherd's  life;  a  good  shep- 
herd he  was,  for  he  risked  his  life  for  his  sheep,  1  Sam.  xvii, 
34,  35.  This  should  remind  us  of  the  best  Shepherd,  even 
Christ,  John  x,  14.  And  how  infinitely  great  is  his  love 
for  his  sheep,  as  his  true  followers  are  called,  for  he  actu- 
ally laid  down  his  life  for  them :  even  while  they  were  yet 
sinners,  and  therefore  at  enmity  with  him,  Christ  died  for 
them,  Rom.  v,  6-8.  Let  it  be  remembered  that  in  the  East 
the  shepherds  always  go  before  their  sheep,  which  follow 
them.  They  also  have  names  for  every  sheep,  and  the 
sheep  answer  by  coming  when  called,  John  x,  3,  4. 

King  Uzziah  was  fond  of  husbandrj^  2  Chron.  xxvi,  10. 
Mesha,  king  of  Moab,  was  a  sheep -master,  2  Kings  iii,  4. 
Several  of  the  prophets  were  employed  in  agriculture ;  as 


64  JEWISH  NATION. 

Elisha,  1  Kings  xix,  19.  Amos  was  a  herdsman,  chap,  i; 
and  others. 

Horses  were  forbidden  to  be  kept  in  the  land  of  Canaan, 
Deut.  xvii,  16  ;  asses  and  oxen  were  therefore  used  for  all 
purposes  of  agriculture. 

It  is  an  encouragement  to  those  who  are  employed  as 
shepherds,  or  in  farming,  to  be  diligent  and  faithful  in  their 
service,  that  kings,  and  prophets,  and  rulers,  have  followed 
the  same  employment.  The  women,  even  of  high  rank, 
attended  to  the  flocks  and  herds.  Rebekah  drew  water  for 
the  camels.  Gen.  xxiv,  20.  Rachel  kept  her  father's  flocks. 
Gen.  xxix,  9  ;  and  Zipporah,  with  her  sisters,  who  were 
daughters  of  the  prince,  or  chief  priest,  of  Midian,  (Exod. 
ii,  16,)  did  the  same.  A  traveler,  who  lately  visited  the 
neighborhood  of  Mount  Sinai,  says,  that  the  women  of  the 
Arab  tribes,  who  inhabit  that  part  of  the  country,  look 
after  the  flocks,  which  in  other  parts  are  left  to  servants  or 
slaves. 

When  the  Israelites  first  settled  in  the  land  of  Canaan, 
each  family  had  a  portion  of  land,  which  could  not  be  parted 
with  for  longer  than  a  few  years,  for  it  returned  to  the 
family  in  the  year  of  jubilee.  They  were  forbidden  to  take 
interest  for  money  from  their  brethren.  Lev.  xxv,  10,  36,  3*7. 
These,  with  other  laws,  made  them  less  able  to  live  by 
trade,  so  that  they  attended  more  to  the  produce  of  the 
earth,  and  to  their  flocks  and  herds. 


CULTIVATION  OF  THE  LAND. 

Many  particulars  respecting  the  manner  in  which  the 
Jews  cultivated  the  land  are  not  mentioned  in  the  Scrip- 
tures. They  used  to  manure  the  ground ;  and  some  per- 
sons have  supposed  that  the  dove's  dung,  mentioned 
2  Kings  vi,  25,  is  a  proof  of  this,  as  it  is  still  much  used  in 
Persia.  Others  sajr,  and  appear  to  be  more  correct,  that 
the  word  means  the  seed  of  a  plant  which  is  called  by  that 
name :  it  is  supposed  to  be  the  same  with  that  we  call  the 
"  Star  of  Bethlehem,"  which  is  found  in  many  gardens  in 
our  country,  but  which  grew  much  larger  and  more  plenti- 
fully in  Judea.  Salt  also  was  used.  Matt,  v,  13  ;  Luke  xiv, 
34,  35. 

The  river  Jordan  overflowed  its  banks  every  year :  see 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  66 

Josh,  iii,  15  ;  1  Chron.  xii,  15.  The  mud  left  by  the  flood, 
not  only  made  the  fields  on  its  banks  very  fertile,  but  was 
also  used  on  other  lands.  When  the  waters  diminished, 
seed  was  sown  on  the  wet  ground,  and  trampled  in  by  the 
feet  of  cattle.  This  is  the  method  still  used  in  Egypt  and 
many  parts  of  India,  particularly  with  respect  to  rice ;  it  is 
alluded  to,  Eccl.  xi,  1  ;  Isa.  xxxii,  20. 

A  great  part  of  the  labor  in  the  cultivation  of  the  land 
was  the  watering  of  it ;  this  was,  and  still  is,  very  necessary 
in  Eastern  countries,  where  no  rain  falls  during  several 
months  in  the  year.  For  this  purpose  the  water  is  raised, 
by  various  machines  and  different  contrivances,  from  the 
rivers  and  streams  to  cisterns  in  the  upper  parts  of  the  gar- 
dens, or  fields.  When  the  rows  of  plants  require  watering, 
some  of  the  water  is  let  out  of  the  cisterns ;  it  runs  in 
streams,  while  the  gardener  stands  ready,  and  from  time  to 
time  stops  the  rills  by  turning  the  earth  against  them  with 
his  foot,  opening  a  new  channel  with  his  spade.  This  is 
alluded  to  in  the  first  Psalm,  as  the  rivers  of  water  men- 
tioned there  mean  these  little  streams,  rather  than  large 
rivers.  The  cisterns  are  alluded  to  in  2  Chron.  xxvi,  10. 
See  the  marginal  reading ;  the  word  translated  wells,  means 
also  cisterns. 

The  method  of  watering  by  the  foot  was  practiced  in  the 
land  of  Judea,  but  was  still  more  necessary  in  Egypt,  where 
it  so  seldom  rains,  that  this  is  described  as  the  prmcipal 
difference  between  that  land  and  Judea:  see  Deut.  xi,  10, 
11,  "The  land,  whither  thou  goest  in  to  possess  it,  is  not 
as  the  land  of  Egypt,  from  whence  ye  came  out,  where  thou 
sowedst  thy  seed,  and  wateredst  it  with  thy  foot,  as  a  gar- 
den of  herbs :  but  the  land,  whither  ye  go  to  possess  it,  is 
a  land  of  hills  and  valleys,  and  drinketh  water  of  the  rain 
of  heaven."  In  the  greater  part  of  the  land  of  Egypt,  rain 
never  fell,  which  made  the  storm  mentioned  Exod.  ix, 
22-32,  so  much  the  more  grievous.  The  river  Nile  every 
year  overflows  all  the  land  on  its  banks,  for  several  hundred 
miles,  which  renders  it  exceedingly  fertile. 

Watering  with  the  foot  may  also  mean  raising  water  by 
machines  turned  with  the  foot,  something  like  a  tread-mill ; 
that  method  is  used  in  the  East,  particularly  in  China ;  but 
it  more  likely  means  what  has  been  just  described.  The 
expression  of  Balaam,  (Num.  xxiv,  '7,)  "  He  shall  pour  the 


66  JEWISH  NATION. 

water  out  of  his  buckets,"  is  understood  by  some  persons  to 
refer  to  machines  in  which  water  was  raised  by  a  number 
of  buckets :  it  points  out  the  future  flourishing  state  of 
Israel. 

A  solemn  curse  was  denounced  against  man  after  the  fall, 
(Gen.  iii,  17-19  :)  "  Cursed  is  the  ground  for  thy  sake ;  in 
sorrow  shalt  thou  eat  of  it  all  the  days  of  thy  life ;  thorns 
also  and  thistles  shall  it  bring  forth  to  thee  ;  and  thou  shalt 
eat  the  herb  of  the  field ;  in  the  sweat  of  thy  face  shalt  thou 
eat  bread :"  that  is,  by  hard  labor  shalt  thou  procure  it. 
We  see  this  curse  fulfilled  to  the  present  day ;  the  ground, 
if  left  to  itself,  everywhere  brings  forth  thorns  and  thistles, 
and  other  weeds.  In  like  manner,  the  hearts  of  the  sons  of 
men  are  fully  set  in  them  to  do  evil ;  and,  unless  God  pre- 
vent, will  only  do  wicked  works.  This  is  an  awful  conside- 
ration :  it  should  remind  us  of  the  importance  of  looking  to 
Jesus  for  pardon  and  peace,  through  the  blood  which  he 
shed  upon  the  cross,  which,  by  the  Holy  Spirit,  is  of  power 
to  cleanse  us  from  all  unrighteousness.  Let  us  pray  ear- 
nestly that  God  the  Holy  Spirit  may  sanctify  our  hearts, 
"  lest  any  root  of  bitterness .  springing  up  trouble  us  ;"  and 
may  we  all  be  "  filled  with  the  fruits  of  righteousness,  which 
are  by  Jesus  Christ,  unto  the  glory  and  praise  of  God," 
Heb.  xii,  15;  Phil,  i,  11. 

At  first,  men  probably  dug  the  earth,  having  few  or  no 
tools  or  implements  to  assist  them.  Noah  is  spoken  of  as 
a  "  husbandman,"  Gen.  ix,  20 ;  perhaps  he  contrived 
plows  and  other  instruments  of  agriculture.  Plows  aie 
mentioned  by  Moses,  (Deut.  xxii,  1 0,)  when  he  is  referring 
to  an  idolatrous  custom  of  the  heathen  ;  also  by  Job,  iv,  8. 
The  prophets  Jeremiah  (iv,  3)  and  Hosea  (x,  12)  mention 
plowing  up  the  fallow  ground.  Job  xxxix,  10  speaks  of 
harrows,  which  are  also  noticed  in  other  passages  of  Scrip- 
ture. Plowing  is  mentioned  in  Gen.  xlv,  6,  when  Joseph 
says,  "  There  are  five  years,  in  which  there  shall  neither  be 
earing  nor  harvest ;"  for  the  word  earing  is  an  old  English 
word  that  means  plowing ;  the  Hebrew  word  there  trans- 
lated by  it,  is  rendered  plowing  in  some  other  texts.  The 
expression,  "ear  the  ground,"  is  also  used,  1  Sam.  viii,  12. 
The  plows  usually  were  much  smaller  and  weaker  than 
those  used  in  England  and  the  United  States :  they  had  a 
share  and  coulter,  but  much  smaller  than  those  now  used, 


MANNERS   AND    CUSTOMS.  bT 

as  may  be  concluded  from  the  prophet  proposing  that  the 
swords  should  be  beaten  into  plowshares,  Isa.  ii,  4  ;  Mic. 
iv,  3.  As  the  ploY^^s  were  smaller  and  lighter,  they  required 
much  care  in  directing  them :  this  may  assist  to  explain 
Luke  ix,  62, — "  No  man,  having  put  his  hand  to  the  plow, 
and  looking  back,  is  fit  for  the  kingdom  of  God."  Referring  to 
the  care  and  attention  necessary  in  plowing,  our  Lord  shows 
the  nece-ssity  of  going  forward  with  steadiness,  in  attention 
to  the  conocms  of  our  souls,  and  the  work  we  are  appointed 
to  perform  in  his  service. 

Oxen  were  used  with  these  plows,  as  by  Elisha ;  also 
1  Sam.  xiv,  14  ;  Amos  vi,  12.  They  were  driven  by 
goads,  or  long  sticks  with  sharp  iron  points,  which  were  of 
large  size,  as  would  be  necessary  when  many  oxen  were 
used.  We  read  of  twelve  yoke,  or  pairs,  used  with  EH- 
sha's  plow,  1  Kings  xix,  19  ;  in  that  case  the  plow  proba- 
bly was  very  heavy  and  cumbrous.  Maundrell  describes 
the  goads  used  in  Syria  not  many  years  ago,  as  eight  feet 
long,  and  having  a  small  spade  at  one  end :  with  one  of 
these  Shamgar  slew  the  PhiUstines,  Judg.  iii,  31 ;  these  also 
are  the  pricks  mentioned.  Acts  ix,  5.  They  were  formida- 
ble instruments. 

It  is  not  unusual  for  the  wandering  tribes  to  occupy  a 
piece  of  land  for  a  season,  s6wing  and  reaping  the  harvest, 
and  then  departing :  Isaac  did  thus  in  Gerar,  (Gen.  xxvi, 
12,)  when  he  was  blessed  to  receive  a  hundred-fold  in- 
crease. Sometimes  payment  is  made  to  the  parties  nomi- 
nally possessors  of  the  soil. 

SOWING  AND  HAKVEST. 

In  Exod.  ix,  31,  32,  various  crops  grown  in  Egypt  are 
mentioned.  Isaiah  (xxviii,  25)  speaks  of  sevei-d  sorts  of 
grain  which  were  sown  by  the  Jews.  In  the  paiWole  of  the 
sower,  our  Lord  spoke  of  a  return  of  thirty,  sixty,  and  even 
a  hundred'fold.  Matt,  xiii,  8.  Gen.  xxvi,  12,  states  how 
plentiful  a  harvest  Isaac  reaped,  even  a  hundred-fold  what 
he  had  sown.  In  Egypt  there  is  a  sort  of  wheat  that  bears 
several  ears  upon  one  stalk,  as  described  by  Pharaoh  in  re- 
lating his  dream,  (Gen,  xli,  5,)  and  produces  very  plentifully. 
Some  persons  have  tried  to  grow  this  wheat  in  England, 
but  the  climate  and  soil  do  not  well  suit  it.     It  has  sue- 


68 


JEWISH  NATION. 


EGYPTIAN  WHEAT. 


ceeded  better  in  some  parts  of  the  United  States.  Three 
months  after  sowing  the  seed,  the  harvest  usually  began, 
and  in  four  months  was  at  its  height.  The  barley  harvest 
was  the  first,  2  Sam.  xxi,  9  ;  that  began  about  the  time  of 
the  passover,  and  the  wheat  harvest  about  the  time  of 
pentecost.  They  used  sickles  to  cut  the  grain:  see  Joel 
iii,  13  ;  Deut.  xvi,  9  ;  and  several  other  texts.  They  bound 
it  up  in  sheaves,  Gen.  xxxvii,  V  ;  Deut.  xxiv,  19 ;  Ruth  ii, 
15  ;  and  then  piled  the  sheaves  in  shocks,  Judg.  xv,  5.  As 
wheat,  and  other  sorts  of  grain,  are  the  produce  of  the 
ground,  and  not  made  by  the  contrivance  of  man,  there  has 
been  less  alteration  in  the  methods  of  cultivation,  than  in 
the  procejfties  of  arts  and  manufactures. 

In  the  second  chapter  of  Ruth,  may  be  read  a  very  beau- 
tiful and  particular  account  of  the  way  in  which  the  har- 
vest was  managed  in  Judea.  There  was  an  overseer  set 
over  the  reapers,  (verse  5,)  and  women  were  employed  in 
the  harvest-field  as  well  as  men,  verse  8. 

The  refreshment  for  the  reapers  while  they  were  at 
work  in  the  field  was  only  bread  and  parched  com ;  their 
drink  was  water,  with  vinegar,  or  a  weak  sort  of  wine. 


MANNERS   AND    CUSTOMS. 


69 


mixed  with  it,  wliich  is  very  refreshing,  as  Dr.  Clarke  found 
when  traveling  in  those  hot  countries.  At  the  end  of  har- 
vest, there  was  great  rejoicing,  and  a  feast,  Psa.  cxxvi,  6 ; 
Isa.  ix,  3  ;  xvi,  9,  10.  These  feasts  were  usual  on  other 
occasions,  such  as  sheep-shearing,  1  Sam.  xxv,  36  ;  2  Sam. 
xiii,  23.  From  the  account  of  Nabal's  preparations,  it  is 
plain  that  large  quantities  of  all  sorts  of  provisions  were 
got  ready.  The  corn  was  carried  home,  sometimes  on 
men's  shoulders,  sometimes  on  the  backs  of  the  cattle,  and 
sometimes  in  a  wagon  or  cart,  Amos  ii,  13.  It  was  then 
piled  up  in  stacks,  Exod.  xxii,  6 ;  or  in  barns.  Matt,  vi,  26  ; 
xiii,  30;  Luke  xii,  18,  24.  The  reapers  in  Egypt  cut  off 
the  ears  of  com,  and  left  the  stubble  standing ;  this  sup- 
plied the  Israelites  (Exod.  v,  12)  with  straw  for  bricks. 


ANCIENT  REAPERS — FROM  EGYPTIAN  SCULPTURES. 


The  poor  were  allowed  to  glean,  for  the  owners  were 
forbidden  to  strip  the  field  quite  bare ;  some  was  to  be  left 
"  for  the  poor  and  the  stranger,"  Lev.  xxiii,  22  :  this  also  re- 
minds us  of  Ruth.  It  seems  unkind  to  object  to  poor  peo- 
ple gleaning,  if  those  who  are  allowed  to  do  so  are  honest, 
and  do  not  attempt  to  take  any  except  what  is  fallen. 

After  the  corn  is  brought  home,  the  next  thing  is  to 
thresh  out  the  grain.  This  was  done  in  different  ways  ; 
sometimes  by  horses,  (Isa.  xxviii,  28,)  or  by  drawing  the 
wheels  of  a  cart  over  the  corn ;  but  more  frequently  by 
oxen,  which    are   mentioned    by  Hosea,   x,   11  ;    and  by 


70  JEWISH  NATION. 

Moses,  (Dent,  xxv,  4,)  where  it  is  particularly  said,  that  the 
mouth  of  the  ox  that  treadeth  out  the  com  is  not  to  be 
muzzled  to  prevent  liim  from  eating.  Travelers  observe 
this  at  the  present  day,  though  the  oxen  are  muzzled  when 
employed  in  other  things.  The  horses  and  oxen  either 
trod  out  the  corn  with  their  feet,  or  dragged  large  stones 
and  heavy  pieces  of  wood,  or  the  carriage  already  men- 
tioned, backward  and  forward.  This  method  was  used  by 
other  ancient  nations :  it  is  mentioned  by  Homer ;  and  is 
still  practiced  in  the  East.  The  most  simple  and  usual 
way  probably  was,  by  beating  the  corn  with  a  flail  or  staff: 
see  Isa.  xxviii,  27.  Thus  Gideon,  Judg.  vi,  11 ;  and  Arau- 
nah,  or  Oman,  and  his  sons,  1  Chron.  xxi,  20. 


TREADING   OUT   THE   CORN. 

This  engraving  represents  the  method  of  treading  out 
com,  usual  in  modern  as  in  ancient  times  in  the  East.  The 
scene  is  near  the  Sea  of  Galilee. 

The  floors,  or  places  where  the  corn  was  threshed,  are 
mentioned  several  times :  that  of  Araunah  was  the  place 
where  Solomon's  temple  was  afterwards  built.  At  the  floor 
of  Atad,  Joseph  mourned  for  Jacob,  Gen.  1,  10.  These 
floors  were  made  with  some  expense  and  trouble ;  they 
were  carefully  leveled,  and  covered  at  the  top,  but  open  at 
the  sides  in  the  daytime,  to  let  the  wind  blow  away  the 
chaff".  To  the  flying  of  chaff"  before  the  wind  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  wicked  is  compared,  Psa.  i,  4.  They  were  shut 
up  or  guarded  at  night  to  preserve  the  corn  from  being  sto- 
len. The  grain  was  winnowed  or  separated  from  the  chaff", 
by  turning  it  over  v/ith  a  shovel,  using  a  fan  to  blow  away 


MANNERS  AND   CUSTOMS.  71 

the  cliafF,  Isaiah  xxx,  24,  John  the  Baptist  alludes  to  this 
when  speaking  of  the  separation  of  the  lighteous  from  the 
wicked,  Matt,  iii,  11,  12. 

During  the  last  fifty  years,  machines  for  threshing  and 
other  purposes  have  been  invented,  which  differ  from  the 
more  simple  methods  formerly  used  in  England  ;  but  till 
that  time,  the  methods  of  cultivating  the  ground,  preparing 
the  corn  for  the  mill,  and  the  agricultural  implements,  were 
nearly  the  same  as  those  mentioned  in  the  Bible.  The  carts 
and  implements  used  by  the  Saxons  were  like  those  here 
represented  from  ancient  drawings. 


•-4^ 


When  the  grain  was  threshed  out,  it  was  stored  in  build- 
ings called  garners,  or  granaries,  Psa.  cxliv,  13  ;  Joel  i,  17  ; 
Matt,  iii,  12.  The  rich  man,  mentioned  in  Luke  xii,  18,  did 
so.  Sometimes  the  quantity  of  grain  thus  laid  up  was 
very  great :  in  1  Chron.  xxvii,  25,  it  is  recorded  that 
David  had  store-houses  in  the  fields,  and  in  the  cities,  and  in 
the  villages,  and  in  the  castles.  Pharaoh's  treasure-cities 
(Exod.  i,  11)  were  places  of  this  sort.  The  quantity  laid 
up  by  Joseph  must  have  been  vast  indeed,  for  it  supplied 
the  Egyptians  and  other  nations  for  several  years.  Genesis 
xh,  54-57  ;  xlvii. 

Sometimes  the  grain  was  buried  in  pits  in  the  fields, 
both  to  preserve  it  and  to  keep  it  from  being  found  by 
enemies :  see  Jer.  xli,  8.  This  is  still  practiced  in  Eastern 
countries. 

When  tlie  corn  ivas  threshed,  it  was  either  dried  to  make 


72  JEWISH   NATION. 

parched  com,  or  ground  into  flour  to  make  bread.  The 
first  is  mentioned,  Lev.  xxiii,  14;  1  Sam.  xvii,  11;  xxv, 
18  ;  and  as  brought  by  Barzillai  for  David's  army,  2  Sam. 
xvii,  28.  Being  ready  for  food  without  other  preparation, 
it  was  suited  for  such  an  occasion.  Sometimes  corn  was 
parched  or  dried  to  make  it  more  fit  to  grind. 

The  corn  was  not  ground  in  large  wind  or  water-mills,  but 
in  small  hand-mills,  or  pounded  in  mortars  ;  and  each  family 
g]-ound  for  itself.  The  mills  have  been  described  already. 
There  were  also  mills  in  prisons,  at  which  the  prisoners 
ground,  as  Samson  did,  Judg.  xvi,  21 ;  and  see  Lam.  v,  13. 
The  prophet  Isaiah  (xlvii,  2)  speaks  of  grinding  as  the 
work  of  a  slave.  Although  it  was  a  laborious  work,  the  peo- 
ple employed  used  to  sing  at  it ;  this  is  alluded  to  where  the 
sound  of  the  mill  is  mentioned,  as  in  Jer.  xxv,  10,  and  in 
Eccl.  xii,  4. 

Our  Lord  referred  to  the  harvest  (Matt,  xiii,  39)  when  he 
spoke  of  the  day  of  judgment.  The  awful  day  when  all 
must  stand  before  the  throne  of  God,  is  compared  to  the 
harvest  and  vintage  in  the  Book  of  Revelation,  xiv,  14-20. 
There,  as  elsewhere  in  the  Bible,  the  harvest  refers  to  the 
gathering  in  of  God's  people  ;  the  vintage,  to  his  vengeance 
on  his  enemies. 


VINEYARDS— WINE  AND  FRUITS. 

Vineyards  abounded  in  all  parts  of  Palestine,  but  the 
grapes  of  the  tribe  of  Judah  were  considered  the  best ;  per- 
haps Jacob  alluded  to  this  (Gen.  xlix,  11)  in  what  he  said 
respecting  Judah.  The  bough  of  a  vine  is  frequently 
trained  along  the  top  of  a  wall,  and  secured  by  stones  tied 
to  the  branches.  The  valley  of  Eshcol,  from  whence  the 
spies  brought  a  very  large  cluster  of  grapes,  (Num.  xiii,  23,) 
was  in  the  lot  of  Judah.  The  wine  of  Lebanon  is  men- 
tioned, (Hos.  xiv,  V,)  as  very  good.  We  read  also  of  the 
wines  of  Heshbon  and  Sibmah,  which  were  places  in  the 
tribe  of  Reuben.     All  these  were  mountainous  districts. 

The  vineyards  were  generally  on  the  north  side  of  a  hill. 
By  comparing  Matt,  xxi,  33,  with  Isa.  v,  2,  and  Psa.  Ixxx,  9, 
we  find  that  the  ground  was  carefully  prepared,  the  stones 
picked  up,  and  a  wall  or  hedge  made  to  enclose  it.  A 
vineyard  of  a  thousand  vines  is  spoken  of  (Isa.  vii,  23)  as 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  73 

paying  a  rent  of  a  thousand  silverings,  or  shekels  of  silver : 
about  $500  of  our  money.  A  number  of  persons,  called 
vine-dressers,  (2  Kings  xxv,  12,)  were  employed  in  plant- 
ing, pruning,  and  propping  the  vines  ;  gathering  the  grapes, 
and  making  the  vrine.  Also  in  guarding  the  vineyard  ;  for 
which  purpose  small  towers  were  built  in  them,  (Matt, 
xxi,  33 ;  Mark,  xii,  1,)  or  at  least  a  cottage  or  lodge,  Isa.  i,  8. 
Vines  were  also  trained  upon  the  walls  of  houses,  Psa. 
cxxviii,  3  ;  Gen.  xlix,  22.  The  Persian  vine-dressers  train 
them  so  at  the  present  day.  In  vineyards,  these  vines  are 
generally  kept  low,  like  currant-bushes,  and  trained  to 
stakes  like  espaliers.  During  the  seventh  year,  vineyards 
were  not  to  be  pruned  or  dressed,  Lev.  xxv,  3,  4. 

The  vintage  was  then,  as  it  is  now,  a  time  of  mirth :  it 
did  not  begin  till  after  the  harvest,  Lev.  xxvi,  5 ;  Amos 
ix,  13.  The  grapes  were  gathered  and  put  into  baskets, 
Jer.  vi,  9  ;  they  were  then  thrown  into  the  wine-vat,  and  at 
first  trodden  by  men,  as  is  now  usual  in  many  wine  coun- 
tries, and  then  pressed,  Neh.  xiii,  15;  Rev.  xiv,  18-20. 

The  juice  of  the  grapes  produced  several  sorts  of  wine. 
Some  was  little  better  than  vinegar,  like  the  common  wines 
of  France  and  other  countries,  which  are  rough  and  tart, 
like  cider:  see  Ruth  ii,  14.  It  was  probably  this  wine 
which  Solomon  sent  in  large  quantities  to  Hiram,  for  the 
wood-cutters  in  Lebanon,  2  Chron.  ii,  10. 

The  wine  was  generally  mixed  with  water ;  also  with 
spices :  see  Prov.  ix,  2,  5  ;  xxiii,  30  ;  Psa.  Ixxv,  8.  It  was 
best  when  old,  or  on  the  lees,  which  means  that  the  lees  or 
dregs  had  sunk  to  the  bottom  of  the  vessels  in  which  it  was 
kept,  Isa.  xxv,  6.  The  poor  were  allowed  to  glean  grapes 
as  well  as  com.  Lev.  xix,  10 ;  Deut.  xxiv,  21. 

The  wine  was  kept  in  skins,  or  leather  bottles,  made  of 
the  entire  skin  of  a  kid  or  goat,  or  of  pieces  of  leather  sewn 
together,  and  the  seams  covered  with  pitch:  see  page  21. 
"Water  and  wine  are  carried  in  this  manner  at  the  present 
day  in  Eastern  countries.  There  were  also  bottles  or  ves- 
sels made  of  clay  by  the  potters :  see  Jer.  xix,  1,  21 ; 
xlviii,  12;  Isa.  xxx,  14,  margin.  Dried  grapes,  or  raisins, 
were  used  by  the  Jews,  1  Sam.  xxx,  1 2 ;  2  Sam.  xvi,  1 ; 
1  Chron.  xii,  40.  In  Deut.  xxviii,  39,  the  Jews  were  told 
that  if  they  disobeyed  the  Lord,  they  should  not  eat  of  the 
vineyards  they  had  planted. 

4 


74  JEWISH   NATION. 

The  vines  required  considerable  care  and  attention,  or  they 
would  not  produce  good  fruit.  To  this  our  Lord  refers, 
John  XV,  2,  where  he  so  beautifully  compares  himself  to 
a  vine,  and  his  people  to  the  branches.  The  vines  would 
not  bring  forth  good  fruit  unless  they  were  pruned,  and  the 
useless  branches  cut  away.  Thus  we  shall  not  bring  forth 
good  fruit,  (that  is,  do  what  is  right,)  unless  our  evil  habits 
and  sinful  inclinations  are  taken  away.  The  vine  cannot 
pnme  itself,  so  we  cannot  make  ourselves  good ;  but  the 
Lord,  in  mercy,  does  this  for  his  people.  Though  what  he 
finds  needful  for  them  sometimes  is  very  painful,  yet  it  is 
for  their  good ;  and  by  the  power  of  Christ,  who  is  the  root, 
(see  John  xv,)  they  are  enabled  to  do  what  is  right  and 
pleasing  in  the  sight  of  God.  The  press  in  which  the 
grapes  are  squeezed,  is  often  mentioned  when  the  manner 
in  which  the  Lord  will  punish  sinners  by  his  almighty  power, 
which  none  can  withstand,  is  described  :  see  Isa,  Ixiii,  3. 

There  were  several  sorts  of  fruits  common  in  Judea  be- 
sides grapes :  among  them  were  dates,  2  Chron.  xxxi,  6, 
marginal  reading.  Also  pomegranates,  (Deut.  viii,  8 ; 
1  Sam.  xiv,  2  ;  Cant,  viii,  2,)  which  are  very  pleasant  fruit; 
figs,  mentioned  Jer.  xxiv,  2,  and  in  many  texts ;  cucumbers 
and  melons, — these  the  Israelites  had  eaten  in  Egypt,  (Num. 
xi,  5,)  and  found  them  in  the  promised  land.  Melons  and 
cucumbers  are  much  cultivated  in  Eastern  countries. 
Jowett  mentions  that  they  abound  in  Egypt  at  the  present 
day.  He  says,  "They  grow  in  such  abundance  on  the 
liver  side,  that  the  sailors  of  the  Nile  freely  helped  them- 
selves ;  and  here  and  there  was  a  small  hut  made  of  reeds, 
just  large  enough  to  shelter  a  man  to  protect  the  fruit ;  as 
is  mentioned  Isa,  i,  8,  '  a  lodge  in  a  garden  of  cucum- 
bers.' "  Sometimes,  when  there  was  a  scarcity,  the  Israel- 
ites ate  the  gourds  which  grew  wild  in  the  fields,  as  2  Kings 
iv,  39.  Our  Lord  cursed  the  barren  fig-tree,  Mark  xi,  13. 
There  is  a  sort  of  fig-tree  in  the  East,  called  the  sycamore- 
fig,  which  bears  fruit  several  times  in  the  year,  and  not  at 
any  certain  season.  The  words  of  our  Lord  declared  that, 
as  the  tree  was  then  barren,  it  should  wither  away.  As  it 
stood  by  the  way-side,  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  the 
particular  property  of  any  one  ;  in  the  sentence  passed  upon 
it,  it  has  been  considered  a  striking  type  of  the  condition  of 
the  unbelieving  Jews. 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  75 

One  of  the  principal  fruits  cultivated  by  the  Jews  was 
the  olive.  It  was  particularly  valuable  on  account  of  the 
oil  it  yielded  when  ripe,  Zech.  iv,  12  ;  when  cultivated  with 
care,  the  fruit  is  much  finer  than  on  wild  trees.  This  is 
beautifully  alluded  to  in  Rom.  xi,  17-24,  where  St.  Paul 
reminds  the  Gentiles  of  the  inestimable  benefits  they  receive 
from  being  admitted  into  the  Church  of  Christ.  It  appears 
from  ancient  books  on  husbandry,  that  the  method  there 
described,  of  grafting  the  shoots  of  the  wild  olive  upon  the 
cultivated  stock,  was  the  plan  pursued. 

The  olives  were  cultivated  in  gardens,  separately;  this 
explains  what  was  said  by  Elisha,  2  Kings  v,  26.  Nehe- 
miah  complained  of  the  wealthy  Jews,  who  withheld  the 
olive-yards  belonging  to  their  poorer  brethren,  Neh.  v,  11 ; 
also  1  Sam.  viii,  14.  But  olive-gardens  are  particularly  to 
be  remembered,  as  our  Lord  often  went  to  one  of  them,  and 
prayed  with  his  disciples.  It  was  in  that  place  he  suffered 
the  anguish  of  mind  for  poor  sinners,  recorded  by  the  evan- 
gelists, particularly  in  St.  Luke's  Gospel,  ch.  xxii,  39-46. 
Let  us  ever  remember  that  our  Lord  not  only  suffered  a 
painful  death  upon  the  cross,  but  he  also  endured  much 
while  praying  in  the  garden.  He  then  suflFered  in  his  mind 
the  punishment  which  our  sins  justly  deserved,  which  was 
so  painful,  although  he  himself  had  not  sinned,  that  "  being 
in  agony,  he  prayed  more  earnestly :  and  his  sweat  was  as 
it  were  great  drops  of  blood  falling  down  to  the  ground," 
Luke  xxii,  44. 

Dr.  Clarke  gives  a  particular  account  of  the  Mount  of 
Olives.  He  describes  the  beautiful  and  extensive  view  from 
that  mountain,  where  our  Lord  sat  (Mark  xiii,  3)  and  pro- 
phesied the  destruction  of  Jerusalem.  He  also  recollected 
the  account  of  David's  passing  over  it  when  fleeing  from 
Absalom,  (2  Sam.  xv,  32,)  and  other  particulars :  he  "visited 
an  olive-ground  always  mentioned  as  the  garden  of  Geth- 
semane.  This  place  is,  not  without  probability,  shown  as 
the  scene  of  our  Saviour's  agony  the  night  before  his  cruci- 
fixion." He  there  found  a  grove  of  aged  olive-trees,  of  large 
size,  covered  with  fruit ;  although  these  cannot  be  the  same 
trees  that  grew  there  nearly  two  thousand  years  ago,  yet 
they  have,  no  doubt,  been  produced  from  the  original  trees. 
It  is  "  a  curious  and  interesting  fact,  that  we  have  clear  evi- 


76 


JEWISH  NATION. 


THE  MOUNT  OF  OLIVES. 


dence  that  olive-trees  have  grown  on  this  spot  since  the  time 
of  David,  three  thousand  years  ago." 

More  recent  travelers  describe  this  plot  of  ground  as  con- 
taining eight  of  these  very  ancient  trees :  it  is  not  possible 
to  say  that  it  certainly  is  the  spot  mentioned  by  the  evan- 
gelists ;  doubtless  the  trees  there  were  cut  down,  as  well  as 
all  the  other  trees  round  Jerusalem,  during  the  siege  by  the 
Romans ;  but  the  locality  agrees  with  the  description  in  the 
New  Testament  far  better  than  those  shown  for  other  places 
described. 

Before  ending  what  is  said  respecting  the  agriculture  of 
the  Jews,  the  reader  may  be  reminded  of  the  many  allusions 
to  these  subjects  in  the  Scriptures.  And  as  the  methods 
of  cultivating  the  ground  are  still  so  like  what  they  were 
nearly  two  thousand  years  ago,  these  allusions  explain  to  us 
many  texts.  "  Ye  are  God's  husbandry,"  or  cultivated  field. 
"Whatsoever  a  man  soweth,  that  shall  he  also  reap."  "I 
am  the  good  Shepherd,  and  know  my  sheep,  and  am  known 
of  mine."  "  I  am  the  true  Vine,  and  my  Father  is  the 
Husbandman."    It  is  needless  to  copy  more. 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS. 


tr 


SMALL  DOMESTIC  LOOM  OF  THE  EAST. 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
MANUFACTURES — TRADES — COMMERCE — MONEY — SHIPS. 


MANUFACTURES  AND  TRADES. 

There  is  very  little  in  the  Bible  about  the  trades  and  manu- 
factures among  the  Jews.  But  they  had  smiths,  Isa.  xliv,  12 ; 
liv,  16  ;  and  carpenters,  Isa.  xli,  1 ;  xliv,  13  ;  Zech.  i,  20; 
and  other  trades  necessary  in  a  country  where  the  inhabit- 
ants chiefly  lived  by  tilling  the  soil.  The  enemies  who  in- 
vaded the  land,  as  the  Philistines  (1  Sam.  xiii,  19)  and  the 
Babylonians,  (Jer.  xxiv,  1,)  carried  the  craftsmen  away  cap- 
tives. They  did  so,  both  to  distress  the  Israelites,  and  be- 
cause men  skilled  in  handicraft  trades  were  reckoned  the 
most  valuable  captives  or  slaves ;  they  are  so  at  the  present 
day.  It  is  plain  that  there  must  be  craftsmen  of  this  de- 
scription in  every  land  which  is  at  all  civilized.  "  The  val- 
ley of  craftsmen,"  (1  Chron.  iv,  14,)  shows  that  they  lived 
together.  Joseph,  the  reputed  father  of  our  Lord  after  the 
flesh,  was  a  carpenter,  Matt,  xiii,  55  ;  Mark  vi,  3.  From 
the  texts,  Luke  ii,  51 ;  Mark  vi,  3,  some  persons  suppose 
that  Christ  himself  assisted  Joseph  while  subject  unto  him 
and  his  mother,  Mary,  before  he  went  forth  to  do  the  will 
of  his  heavenly  Father,  and  therefore  he  was  called  "the 
carpenter."     Whether  this  be  correct  or  not,  the  circum- 


78 


JEWISH  NATION. 

iiiv 


THE  POTTER  AT  WOKK. 


stance  of  our  Lord  being  willing  to  be  considered  "  a  car- 
penter," may  well  make  those  engaged  in  trades  of  handi- 
craft content  with  their  lot.  In  whatever  state  we  are  placed, 
let  us  be  therewith  content,  Phil,  iv,  11. 

There  were  not  many  regular  manufactures  among  the 
Jews.  In  1  Chron.  iv,  21,  we  read  of  the  famihes  of  the 
house  of  them  that  wrought  fine  linen,  an  instance  of  the 
sort  as  a  trade.  In  verse  23,  we  read  of  potters,  and  also 
in  Jer.  xviii,  2,  and  Lam.  iv,  2  :  the  potters  in  the  East  often 
work  with  a  wheel  upon  the  same  principle  as  with  us.  In 
those  times,  probably,  the  children  were  usually  brought  up 
to  their  father's  business.  This  rule  is  strictly  followed  in 
the  East  Indies  at  the  present  day :  scarcely  any  one  is  al- 
lowed to  pui'sue  a  trade  different  from  that  of  his  family. 

There  are  several  beautiful  allusions  to  weaving.  Job  vii,  6 ; 
Isa.  xxxviii,  12;  but  this,  like  spinning  the  thread,  was  a 
family  employment,  rather  than  a  regular  trade.  It  is  so 
now  among  some  Eastern  nations.  The  loom  and  instru- 
ments for  spinning  were  of  the  plainest  and  most  simple 
kinds.  In  the  description  of  the  virtuous  woman,  (Prov. 
xxxi,  10-31,)  is  a  minute  account  of  the  manner  in  which 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS. 


T9 


WOMAN    SPINNING. 


these  family  employments  were  directed  by  the  mistress. 
Nor  was  this  only  in  the  families  of  the  middle  and  lower 
ranks ;  in  the  Greek  and  Roman  histories,  we  read  of  the 
wives  of  kings  and  generals  thus  engaged.  Homer,  who 
lived  soon  after  the  time  of  Solomon,  describes  two  queens, 
Penelope  and  Helen,  employed  at  their  looms.  Dr.  Shaw 
found  that  the  women  in  Barbary  were  the  only  persons 
who  wove  the  hykes,  or  upper  garments.  These  are  coarse 
articles ;  they  did  not  use  shuttles,  but  passed  the  threads 
of  the  woof  with  their  fingers. 

The  custom  of  spinning  thread  in  families,  for  their  own 
use,  was  very  common  in  England  till  within  the  last  fifty 
years.  Even  now,  in  some  farm-houses,  particularly  in  the 
dairy  countries,  the  maids  sit  down  to  spin  in  the  afternoon; 
sometimes  an  aged  woman  may  still  be  seen  spinning  at  a 
cottage-door.  The  thread  was  sometimes  sold  to  dealers, 
or  more  generally  sent  to  weavers,  who  lived  near,  and  wove 
for  the  different  families  of  the  districts.  But  the  general 
use  of  machinery  has  nearly  put  an  end  to  this  species  of 
industry. 


1^0  JEWISH    NATION. 

The  Arab  loom,  as  described  by  Burkhardt,  is  very  simple. 
It  is  merely  two  upright  sticks  fixed  in  the  ground,  and  ano- 
ther across  them,  three  others  being  placed  in  the  same 
manner  at  about  four  yards'  distance.  The  threads  of  the 
warp  are  then  stretched  from  one  cross  stick  to  the  other, 
the  alternate  threads  are  kept  separate  by  other  pieces  of 
wood  passed  between  them,  the  woof  is  passed  across  on 
another  piece  of  wood  serving  as  a  shuttle,  and  the  threads, 
when  passed  across,  are  pressed  up  by  a  piece  of  horn. 
In  this  way  they  make  coarse  cloth,  tent  coverings,  and 
carpets.  Robinson  saw  a  woman  thus  weaving  a  goat's-hair 
cloak. 

Chardin  describes  the  Persian  tailors  making  carpets, 
hangings  for  doors,  and  similar  articles,  by  sewing  together 
pieces  of  felt  in  various  patterns.  The  embroidery  is  usu- 
ally executed  by  the  females ;  it  is  very  beautiful ;  this  is 
worked  with  the  needle,  on  cloth  fixed  in  frame.  Such 
probably  were  the  hangings  for  the  door  of  the  tabernacle, 
"wrought  with  needlework,"  Exod.  xxvi,  36. 

It  should  be  observed,  that  in  the  instance  of  Solomon's 
virtuous  woman,  (Prov.  xxxi,)  the  cloth  spun  and  wove  at 
home  was  for  the  use  of  the  family,  and  it  is  so  usually  in 
our  own  times.  The  comfort  of  such  clothing  is  well  ex- 
pressed :  "  She  is  not  afraid  of  the  snow  for  her  household ; 
for  all  her  household  are  clothed  with  scarlet,"  Prov. 
xxxi,  21;  or,  as  the  margin  better  expresses  it,  "with 
double  garments."     Even  Delilah  wove,  Judg.  xvi,  13,  14. 

Solomon's  virtuous  woman  is  represented,  by  the  trans- 
lators of  the  Bible,  as  having  clothing  of  silk :  the  word  ren- 
dered silk  should  be  fine  cotton,  cloth,  or  muslin.  Silk  was 
then  scarcely,  if  at  all,  known.  Aurelian,  the  Roman  em- 
peror, thirteen  hundred  years  after  the  time  of  Solomon, 
refused  his  wife  a  silk  gown  because  it  was  too  expensive : 
we  can,  therefore,  hardly  suppose  that  a  Jewish  woman  of 
the  middle  class  could  have  had  such  clothing.  The  word 
silk,  in  the  margin  of  Gen.  xli,  42,  has  the  same  meaning. 
Much  of  the  fine  linen  of  Egypt,  so  often  mentioned,  we 
should  call  now  coarse,  for  such  is  the  improvement  in 
manufactures.  Of  this  there  can  be  no  doubt,  from  an  ex- 
amination of  the  linen  wrapped  round  the  embalmed  bodies, 
or  mummies,  of  persons  formerly  in  high  rank  in  Egypt. 
There  were  various  sorts  of  cloth  in  former  times ;  for  no 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS. 


n 


less  than  four  different  Hebrew  words  are  all  rendered 
"linen,"  by  our  translators.  It  is  probable  one  or  more  of 
them  were  of  cotton.  David's  robe  (1  Chron.  xv,  27)  was 
of  "  butz,"  which  is  supposed  to  have  been  fine  cotton  cloth. 
Bruce  mentions  such  robes  being  worn  by  men  of  rank  in 
Abyssinia.     This  is  the  representation  of  an  Egyptian  loom, 


from  a  painting  at  Beni  Hassan.  It  represents  an  Egyptian 
weaver  at  work.  It  is  copied  from  an  ancient  painting,  and 
shows  much  more  machinery  than  the  simple  family  loom 
already  described. 

As  an  additional  proof  that  the  manufactures  among  the 
Jews  were  not  extensive,  we  may  refer  to  Ezekiel  xxvii.  In 
that  chapter  the  prophet  describes,  very  minutely,  all  the 
articles  in  which  the  merchants  of  Tyre  dealt ;  but  none  of 
them  came  from  Judea,  except  "wheat,  honey,  oil,  and 
balm,"  verse  11 ;  all  of  which  were  productions  of  the  soil 
of  that  country. 

The  account  given  of  many  articles  made  for  the  use  of 
the  tabernacle,  (Exod.  xxv,  25,  26,)  and  for  the  temple, 
shows  that  they  were  made  by  the  Israelites,  rather  as 
family  employments,  than  as  regular  manufactures.  Solo- 
mon sent  to  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  (2  Chron.  ii,  7,  13,)  for  a 
4* 


82  JEWISH  NATION. 

man  skillful  enough  to  direct  the  manufacture  of  the  articles 
he  wished  to  have  made  for  the  temple. 

Shoes  and  clothes  were  also  made  at  home  :  this  was  usual 
in  other  countries.  Homer  describes  Eumeas,  the  very  re- 
spectable steward  of  King  Ulysses,  employed  in  making  his 
own  shoes.  Sometimes  these  articles  might  be  sold,  Amos 
ii,  6  ;  but  that  was  usually  by  way  of  barter :  and  there  is 
no  mention  of  regular  shoemakers  or  tailors,  as  tradesmen. 

There  were  but  few  butchers  or  bakers.  The  country- 
people  brought  meat  and  other  articles  of  food  to  the  large 
towns.  The  men  of  Tyre  (Neh.  xiii,  16)  did  so,  and  sold 
them  in  the  market  at  Jerusalem.  We  read  of  the  sheep- 
market,  and  other  similar  places.  In  the  case  of  the  men 
of  Tyre,  just  mentioned,  the  purchase  and  sale  of  pro- 
visions on  the  Sabbath  was  forbidden.  It  is  sad  to  think 
how  many  in  our  land  constantly  break  the  fourth  com- 
mandment. 

That  bakers  were  not  common,  we  may  suppose  from 
the  distress  of  David,  1  Sam.  xxi,  3.  He  would  hardly 
have  been  so  urgent  with  the  priests  of  Nob,  to  give  him 
the  shew-bread,  if  he  could  have  bought  bread.  We  read, 
Jer.  xxxvii,  21,  of  a  bakers'  street ;  but  this  was  in  later 
times,  and  at  Jerusalem.  Our  blessed  Lord  told  his  disci- 
ples to  buy  bread  for  the  multitude,  but  they  did  not  con- 
sider it  could  be  done,  John  vi,  5-7  ;  and  a  boy  appears  to 
have  followed  the  crowd  with  a  few  loaves  and  fishes  for 
sale,  verse  9. 

In  the  New  Testament  there  is  mention  of  several  trades. 
Joseph  was  a  carpenter,  Matt,  xiii,  55  ;  Mark  vi,  3  ;  Simon, 
a  tanner,  Acts  ix,  43  ;  Demetrius,  a  silversmith,  Acts  xix, 
24;  Alexander,  a  coppersmith,  2  Tim.  iv,  14;  Paul  and 
Aquila  were  tent-makers,  Acts  xviii,  3  ;  or,  it  is  supposed, 
upholsterers  ;  Lydia,  a  seller  of  purple,  or  dyer,  ch.  xvi,  14. 
The  preparation  of  leather  was,  and  still  is,  an  important 
art  in  the  East,  from  the  many  uses  to  which  the  skins  of 
beasts  are  applied,  particularly  for  water-skins.  The  bark 
of  oak,  or  the  peels  of  pomegranates,  are  often  used  for 
tanning.  Robinson  describes  a  manufactory  at  Hebron, 
where  he  saw  1500  goat-skins  in  preparation. 

There  is  another  employment  frequently  spoken  of  in  the 
Scriptures — the  fishermen  mending  their  nets,  Matt,  iv,  21 : 
Mark  i,  19       No  doubt  thev  also  made  their  own  nets. 


MANNERS  AND    CUSTOMS.  88 

M'Cheyne  describes  the  nets  he  saw  used  in  Egypt,  and  at 
the  Sea  of  Gahlee, — a  sort  of  purse  net ;  but  in  fishing  from 
boats,  larger  nets  would  be  used.  The  fact  that  the  Gos- 
pel was  made  known  through  the  world  by  the  preaching 
of  twelve  persons,  who  were  plain  fishermen,  or  others 
much  of  the  same  class,  is  one  of  the  strongest  proofs  that 
can  be  of  the  divine  origin  of  the  Christian  religion,  and 
that  its  prevalence  has  not  been  owing  to  human  contri- 
vance or  art. 

The  first  mention  in  the  Bible  respecting  trade,  (Gen. 
xxxvii,)  is  about  the  Midianites  and  Ishmaelites,  who  were 
carrying  spices,  and  balm,  and  myrrh,  from  Gilead  to 
Egypt.  These  articles  were  much  used  in  that  country, 
for  embalming  the  bodies  of  the  dead.  Nicodemus 
brought  a  quantity  of  spices  for  the  body  of  Jesus,  John 
xix,  39.  But  those  merchants  appear  to  have  been  willing 
to  buy  anything  whereby  they  could  make  a  profit :  so 
they  bought  Joseph,  and  paid  twenty  pieces  of  silver  to 
his  brethren  for  him.  They  do  not  seem  to  have  cared 
whether  the  sons  of  Jacob  had  any  right  to  sell  Joseph : 
they  doubtless  were  aware  that  the  Hebrews  were  doing 
wrong ;  but,  like  too  many,  even  at  the  present  day,  they 
did  not  mind  whether  this  were  the  case  or  not,  if  they 
could  make  a  profit  by  what  they  bought.  When  the 
merchants  took  Joseph  down  to  Egypt,  they  little  thought 
that  the  poor  lad  was  a  treasure  more  precious  than  all 
their  spices,  and  balm,  and  myrrh;  and  that  their  poor 
young  slave  would  one  day  be  the  lord  of  Egypt. 

Also  notice,  that  these  merchants  dealt  in  slaves.  It  is  a 
very  dreadful  thing,  that  men,  women,  and  children, 
should  be  sold  like  cattle,  and  that  by  persons  called 
Christians. 

In  the  law,  as  delivered  to  Moses,  there  are  no  precepts 
or  regulations  respecting  trade.  The  neighboring  nations 
were  idolaters ;  and  the  Hebrews  could  not  have  intercourse 
in  trade  with  them  without  danger  of  being  led  away  from 
the  true  religion.  But  trade  and  commerce  were  not  for- 
bidden :  there  are  positive  commands  for  just  and  true 
dealings  in  the  way  of  trade,  Deut.  xxv,  15,  16, — "Thou 
shalt  have  a  perfect  and  just  weight,  a  perfect  and  just 
measure  shalt  thou  have ;  that  thy  days  may  be  length- 
ened in  the  land  which  the  Lord  thy  God  giveth  thee. 


84  JEWISH   NATION. 

For  all  that  do  such  things,  (those  who  have  unjust  weights 
and  measures,)  and  all  that  do  unrighteously,  are  an  abomi- 
nation unto  the  Lord  thy  God." 

M'Cheyne  observed  that  the  people  often  used  stones  as 
weights,  as  Lev.  xix,  36 :  "  Just  balances,  just  stones,  (as 
weights,)  shall  ye  have." 

It  would  be  well  if  this  and  similar  texts  were  written  up 
in  every  shop  and  warehouse;  but  still  better,  if  they 
were  written  upon  the  hearts  of  all  buyers  and  sellers.  See 
also  Prov.  xi,  1.  In  later  times,  the  Jews  traded  more 
with  the  surrounding  nations ;  see  1  Kings  x,  22,  28,  29 ; 
and  2  Chron.  viii,  17,  18.  Trade  was  encouraged  by  king 
Solomon,  and  was  accounted  honorable.  In  1  Kings  xxii, 
48,  we  read  of  king  Jehoshaphat  preparing  ships  to  trade 
with  Ophir ;  but  when  Ahaziah,  a  wicked  king  of  Israel, 
wanted  him  to  join  in  this  trade,  he  refused,  verse  49. 

MONEY  AND  COMMERCE. 

Money  is  often  mentioned  in  Scripture.  The  earliest  notice 
is  Gen.  xxiii,  16,  where  Abraham  paid  a  sum  of  four  hun- 
dred shekels  of  silver  to  Ephron,  "  money  current  with  the 
merchant."  It  is  not  supposed  that  this  was  coined  money, 
but  only  that  weight  in  silver ;  for  the  ancient  method  of 
receiving  or  paying  money  was  by  weighing  the  pieces  of 
metal,  as  is  now  usual  in-  China,  and  in  some  other  coun- 
tries. Malcolm  says,  "  Burmah  has  no  coinage.  Silver 
passes  in  fragments  of  all  sizes,  and  the  amount  of  every 
transaction  is  regularly  weighed  out."  There  is  no  cer- 
tainty of  any  coinage  of  money  among  the  Jews,  till  the 
time  of  Judas  Maccabeus,  long  after  the  return  from  Baby- 
lon. The  penny  paid  to  the  laborers,  (Matt,  xx,  9,)  for 
their  day's  wages,  was  a  Greek  silver  coin,  worth  about 
fifteen  cents,  which  would  then  purchase  more  food  than 
two  or  three  times  that  sum  now  would  buy.  In  later 
times,  the  Greek  and  Roman  money  was  current  in  Judea, 
Matt,  xxii,  20.  In  this  money  the  taxes  were  paid.  The 
reader  will  recollect  that  a  pubhcan  was  one  who  collected 
the  taxes  and  custom  money,  Matt,  ix,  9  ;  Mark  ii,  14. 
Matthew  and  Zaccheus  were  such.  In  general,  the  publi- 
cans were  guilty  of  fraud :  they  were  also  much  hated  by 
the  Jews  for  being  the  officers  of  their  foreign  rulers.     On 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  86 

these  accounts  they  are  spoken  of  in  the  manner  we  read 
hi  the  Gospels. 

Even  now  m  the  East  the  traveler  is  often  stopped  by 
toll-collectors,  who  are  very  insolent  and  oppressive.  Bruce 
and  Morier  describe  the  extortions  they  practice  when  they 
are  able  to  enforce  their  demands. 

Much  of  the  ancient  Greek  and  Roman  money  consisted 
of  the  pieces  now  called  medals.  Some  record  the  con- 
quest of  Judea  by  the  Romans,  representing  that  coimtry 
as  a  female  captive  sitting  under  a  palm-tree ;  they  testify 
the  truth  of  Scripture. 


Our  blessed  Lord  referred  to  merchants  and  trade.  In 
Matt,  xiii,  45,  46,  is  the  parable  of  the  merchant-man,  who 
sought  for  goodly  pearls;  and  in  Matt,  xxv,  16,  17,  we 
read  that  the  faithful  servants  to  whom  the  talents  were 
intrusted,  went  and  traded  with  them.  Let  us  particularly 
notice  the  pearl-merchant.  When  he  had  found  one  of 
great  price,  or  very  valuable,  he  went  and  sold  all  that  he 
had,  even  his  "  goodly  pearls,"  that  he  might  buy  it.  This 
'•  pearl  of  great  price,"  represents  to  us  the  Lord  Jesus 
Christ.  Those  who  have  really  found  him  are  ready  to 
part  with  every  worldly  possession  or  indulgence  that  they 
may  obtain  him.  He  has  promised^  that  those  who  seek 
him  shall  find  him  :  "  With  all  thy  getting  get  understand- 
ing," Prov  iv,  V ;  and  the  knowledge  of  Christ,  as  the  Sa- 
viour who  suffered  upon  the  cross  for  our  sins,  is  the  true 
wisdom. 

Trade  was  not  forbidden  by  the  law  of  Moses,  nor  by  our 
Lord,  when  carried  on  fairly  and  honestly,  and  without 
breaking  the  commands  of  God.     But  the  trade  was  sinful 


86  JEWISH  NATION. 

which  our  Lord  reproved,  when  he  drove  the  buyers  and 
sellers  out  of  the  temple,  John  ii;  Matt,  xxi;  Mark  xi; 
Luke  xix.  Observe,  it  is  related  by  all  the  evangelists. 
Although  in  these  days  we  do  not  see  people  buying  and 
selling  in  the  churches  and  chapels,  how  many  there  are 
who  make  the  Lord's  day  a  day  of  merchandise,  and  buy 
and  sell  thereon  for  their  own  pleasure  and  profit,  without 
the  least  necessity  !  Let  them  not  deceive  themselves,  hke 
the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem,  who  thought  it  necessary  to 
buy  fish  and  other  things  on  the  Sabbath,  Neh.  xiii,  16 ; 
but  when  Nehemiah  shut  the  gates  on  the  Sabbath,  and 
kept  out  the  dealers,  the  people  found  that  they  could 
manage  without  buying  on  that  day.  Again,  there  are 
many  who  do  not  buy  or  sell  upon  the  Lord's  day,  but  who 
think,  and  even  talk  a  great  deal  about  their  merchandise, 
their  bargains,  and  schemes  of  profit.  Where  is  the  dififer- 
ence  between  this  and  handling  the  goods  themselves  ? 

In  the  East,  a  bargain  is  often  a  very  long  transaction. 
Perkins  says,  he  had  occasion  repeatedly  to  notice,  that  at 
first  the  article  asked  for  was  spoken  of  as  to  be  a  present 
to  the  purchaser,  who,  offering  to  pay,  was  then  required  to 
name  his  own  price ;  that,  even  if  reasonable,  was  refused, 
and  far  more  than  the  real  value  was  then  demanded ;  but 
if  the  purchaser  turned  away,  more  fair  terms  were  acceded 
to.  He  refers  to  the  transaction  between  Abraham  and  the 
sons  of  Heth,  (Gen.  xxiii,  10,  11,)  as  illustrating  what  now 
passes  in  bargaining  in  Persia.  Lane  says  it  is  the  same  in 
Egypt,  the  peasants  well  knowing  that  advantage  will  not 
be  taken  of  their  offer  to  give  up  the  article  as  a  present. 

The  merchants  and  traders  whom  Nehemiah  shut  out 
were  men  of  Tyre,  the  most  famous  place  for  trade  among 
all  the  cities  in  or  near  Judea.  In  Ezekiel  xxvii,  we  have 
a  full  account  of  the  vast  trade  of  that  wealthy  city.  In 
that  chapter,  Tyre  is  compared  to  a  ship.  The  descrip- 
tion at  pages  89,  90,  ^vill  help  to  explain  that  passage  of 
Scripture,  and  also  give  some  ideas  respecting  the  ancient 
ships.  That  chapter  shows  the  great  wealth  and  extensive 
commerce  of  the  city,  which  appears  to  have  traded  with 
all  countries,  and  to  have  dealt  in  all  the  principal  articles 
of  trade  of  the  present  day.  Here  again  is  mention  of  mer- 
chants who  dealt  in  slaves!  yer.  13.  Wealth  increased, 
imtil  *'  her  mierchants  were  princes,  and  her  traffickers  the 


MANNERS  AND   CUSTOMS.  87 

honorable  of  the  earth,"  Isa.  xxiii,  8.  The  people  of  Tyre 
became  proud :  in  their  anxiety  to  get  riches  they  dealt  un- 
justly, and  became  "  defiled  by  the  iniquity  of  their  traffic," 
Ezek.  xxviii,  18.  God,  by  the  prophet  Ezekiel,  declared 
the  do-wnfall  of  that  proud  wealthy  city ;  in  a  few  years  it 
was  accomplished,  as  foretold  by  the  prophet :  see  Ezek, 
xxvi,  xxvii,  and  xxviii.  "  Riches  fly  away  as  an  eagle  to- 
ward heaven,"  Prov.  xxiii,  5.  This  strongly  shows  the  un- 
certainty of  riches,  the  danger  of  having  our  hearts  cumbered 
and  led  astray  by  worldly  wealth,  and  the  certain  conse- 
quences of  unjust  gain.  In  Ezek.  xxvi,  4,  5,  we  read, 
"They  shall  destroy  the  walls  of  Tyrus,  and  break  down 
her  towers :  I  Avill  also  scrape  her  dust  from  her,  and  make 
her  like  the  top  of  a  rock.  It  shall  be  a  place  for  the 
spreading  of  nets  in  the  midst  of  the  sea :  for  I  have  spoken 
it,  saith  the  Lord  God."  Modem  travelers  have  told  us 
how  completely  this  has  been  fulfilled.  The  precise  situa- 
tion of  ancient  Tyre  is  not  exactly  known,  so  utterly  has  it 
been  destroyed :  but  a  place  is  pointed  out  where  it  proba- 
bly stood.  Several  travellers  have  borne  witness  to  the 
fulfillment  of  the  prophecy,  that  Tyre  should  be  a  place  for 
fishers  to  dry  their  nets.  Bruce  saw  two'  miserable  fisher- 
men who  had  just  returned  from  their  labors,  and  were 
about  to  spread  their  nets  upon  the  rocks. 

Yet,  awful  as  the  case  of  Tyre  was,  our  Lord  said  it 
should  be  more  tolerable  for  the  inhabitants  of  Tyre,  in  the 
day  of  judgment,  than  for  the  inhabitants  of  Chorazin  and 
Bethsaida,  where  he  had  so  often  preached  the  gospel,  and 
told  the  glad  tidings  of  salvation,  confirming  his  words  by 
his  miracles ;  yet  the  inhabitants  attended  not  to  his  words  ! 

The  blessed  Saviour  called  himself  the  Bread  of  life, 
John  vi,  35,  48,  51.  Large  portions  of  this  Bread  are  set 
before  us ;  for  we  are  told  much  about  Christ,  and  how  he 
suffered  to  save  poor  sinners.  Let  us  pray  that  we  may  be 
enabled  to  feast  thereon,  to  love  him,  and  to  serve  him.  If 
we  enjoy  this  glad  news,  which  is  spoken  of  as  a  feast,  (Isa. 
XXV,  6,)  surely  we  shall  not  forget  the  poor  heathen,  but  be 
anxious  to  "  send  portions  unto  them  for  whom  nothing  is 
prepared,"  (Neh.  viii,  10,)  by  helping  those  societies,  by 
which  the  gospel  is  sent  to  the  heathen. 

The  history  of  king  Solomon  presents  many  particulars 
respecting  the  commerce  of  the  Jews,  and  other  nations. 


88  JEWISH  NATION. 

He  was  a  man  of  peace,  as  his  name  signij&es,  and  encou- 
raged trade.  In  his  days  the  inhabitants  of  Tyre  were  very 
active  in  trade ;  he  saw  the  advantages  they  derived  from 
commerce,  and  was  anxious  that  his  subjects  should  partake 
of  these  benefits. 

King  David  subdued  his  enemies  on  all  sides  of  Judea, 
and  extended  his  dominions  to  the  Red  Sea,  so  that  Solomon 
possessed  a  good  harbor  or  sea-port  there,  called  Ezion- 
geber,  (1  Kings  ix,  26,)  from  whence  ships  could  sail  to  the 
rich  countries  of  Africa  and  Asia.  The  Jews  being  igno- 
rant of  the  method  of  building  ships,  Solomon  applied  to 
Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  who  sent  workmen  able  to  build  vessels, 
and  seamen  to  navigate  them.  The  ships  being  ready,  the 
two  kings  joined  in  sending  them  to  foreign  countries,  and 
they  brought  back  much  gold,  silver,  ivory,  and  other  valu- 
able merchandise :  they  also  procured  apes,  peacocks,  and 
other  foreign  curiosities :  see  1  Kings  ix,  27,  28 ;  x,  22 ; 
2  Chron.  viii,  18;  ix,  21.  So  important  did  this  trade  ap- 
pear to  Solomon,  that  he  went  to  Ezion-geber  and  Elath,  to 
superintend  the  fitting  out  of  the  ships,  2  Chron.  viii,  17. 
The  fleets  sent  out  by  Hiram  and  Solomon  went  to  some 
countries  at  a  considerable  distance,  called  Ophir  and  Tar- 
shish.  They  are  generally  supposed  to  be  the  same  which 
are  now  called  Zanguebar  and  Sofala,  on  the  eastern  coast 
of  Africa ;  but  they  may  have  been  other  places.  The  art 
of  navigation  was  then  so  little  understood,  that  the  ships 
were  three  years  in  making  a  voyage  which  now  would 
occupy  only  a  few  weeks.  There  is  not  any  account  of  the 
articles  sent  out  in  these  ships ;  but  as  the  people  of  Tyre 
traded  in  all  kinds  of  merchandise,  there  could  be  no  diffi- 
culty in  procuring  suitable  cargoes ;  and  Judea,  we  have 
seen,  abounded  in  corn,  wine,  and  oil.  The  articles  received 
in  return  have  been  already  mentioned.  Solomon  was  sup- 
plied by  this  trade  with  many  materials  for  his  splendid 
palaces  and  other  buildings,  and  the  whole  nation  was  en- 
riched by  this  trafliic.  Silver  became  quite  common  in 
Jerusalem,  so  that  "  it  was  nothing  accounted  of  in  the  days 
of  Solomon,"  1  Kings  x,  21,  27.  This  great  monarch  also 
traded  with  the  Egyptians,  from  whom  he  purchased  horses, 
chariots,  and  linen  yarn.  The  horses  cost  150  shekels  each, 
the  chariots  600,  1  Kings  x,  28,  29 :  he  had  40,000  horses 
for  chariots,  and  12,000  for  his  horsemen,  1  Kings  iv,  26. 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  89 

After  the  death  of  Solomon,  and  the  division  of  his  Mng- 
dom,  the  eastern  or  southern  trade  continued,  but  with  less 
advantage,  and  with  less  regularity.  We  read  that  the 
ships  of  Jehoshaphat  were  wrecked  in  the  Red  Sea.  In  the 
reign  of  Jehoram,  his  successor,  the  Edomites,  in  whose 
country  these  ports  were  situated,  revolted  from  the  Jewish 
yoke.  Uzziah  again  obtained  possession  of  Elath,  when  the 
trade  continued  in  the  hands  of  the  Jews,  till  Rezin,  king  of 
Damascus,  and  afterwards  Tiglath-pileser,  king  of  Assyria, 
took  these  ports  away  from  the  Jews.  Thus  their  trade 
and  commercial  greatness  were  destroyed :  see  2  Kings  xvi, 
and  2  Chron.  xxviii.  From  hence  may  plainly  be  seen,  that 
persons  cannot  expect  to  prosper  in  trade  or  commerce,  or 
in  any  other  pursuit,  without  the  blessing  of  Almighty  God. 

SHIPS. 

No  particular  description  of  the  ships  belonging  to  the 
Jews  is  given  in  Scripture ;  they  would  be  similar  to  the 
ships  of  the  neighboring  nations,  which  in  those  times 
differed  very  much  from  our  vessels.  Even  in  the  present 
day,  the  ships  of  the  Asiatics  are  diflFerent  from  those  of  the 
west ;  and  by  attending  to  the  accounts  given  by  modem 
travelers,  we  may  better  understand  the  account  of  St. 
Paul's  voyage,  and  other  passages  of  Scripture. 

The  trading  vessels  were,  in  general,  much  smaller  than 
those  common  among  us.  Frequently  they  were  less  than 
fifty  tons  burden.  Within  the  last  three  hundred  years, 
very  small  vessels  were  sent  on  long  voyages.  Some  of 
Sir  Francis  Drake's  vessels,  which  went  out  to  sail  round 
the  world,  were  only  about  thirty  tons  burden.  In  Acts 
xxvii,  is  the  account  of  Paul's  voyage,  which  shows  how 
much  less  skillful  the  ancient  sailors  were  than  the  moderns. 

In  those  days  the  sailors  had  no  compass,  or  magnetic 
needle,  which,  by  pointing  constantly  towards  the  north, 
might  have  directed  their  course  at  all  times.  They  could 
only  judge  which  way  they  were  sailing  by  observing  the 
sun  and  the  stars  ;  so  that,  in  cloudy  weather,  when  neither 
appeared  for  many  days,  (ver.  20,)  they  were  quite  at  a 
loss  :  they  knew  not  which  way  they  were  sailing.  It  was 
then  usual  for  vessels  to  remain  in  harbor  during  the 
winter  months,  (ver.  12,)  because  the  sailors  feared  the  dark 
tempestuous  nights  and  cloudy  days.     This  the  master  of 


90  JEWISH  NATION. 

Paul's  ship  intended  to  do  ;  but  a  storm  came  on,  and 
drove  the  vessel  out  of  its  course.  It  is  still  the  custom  in 
those  seas  to  tow  the  boats  after  the  ship,  which  gives 
much  trouble  when  the  waves  are  high,  ver.  16.  The  ves- 
sel being  much  shaken  by  the  storm,  they  undergirded  it, 
ver.  17  ;  that  is,  they  passed  a  strong  rope  or  cable  round 
the  ship,  to  prevent  it  from  falling  to  pieces ;  this  is  some- 
times done  at  the  present  day.  One  of  the  Spanish  ships 
sent  out  against  Lord  Anson,  in  1*740,  was  so  much  dam- 
aged by  a  storm,  that  a  cable  was  fastened  round  it  in  six 
places.  Some  persons  have  been  much  puzzled  about  the 
four  anchors  cast  out  of  the  stern ;  but  Pocock  tells  us  it  is 
not  unusual  for  Egyptian  saiques,  or  trading  vessels,  to  cany 
anchors  at  the  stern,  which  they  cast  out  by  the  help  of  a 
boat,  ver.  29,  30  ;  or  it  may  have  been  an  anchor  with  four 
points,  or  flukes,  which  is  used  in  some  vessels  in  those 
countries.  The  loosing  of  the  rudder  band,  (ver.  40,)  is  ex- 
plained by  the  ancient  vessels  having  been  steered  bj  two 
large,  broad  oars,  one  on  each  side.  These  were  fastened 
by  bands  or  cords  to  the  sides  of  the  ship.  They  proba- 
bly had  been  tied  up  when  the  vessel  was  allowed  to  drive, 
(ver.  17,)  but  were  loosed  again  to  direct  the  ship's  course, 
when  they  hoisted  the  sail,  and  steered  towards  the  shore. 
These  explanations  remove  many  difficulties  which  sailors 
have  felt  respecting  the  account  of  Paul's  voyage,  because 
they  did  not  consider  the  great  difference  between  ancient 
and  modem  ships. 

There  are  many  places  in  which  ships  are  mentioned 
in  the  Old  Testament.  Jonah  had  gone  down  into  the 
sides  of  the  ship,  and  was  fast  asleep,  Jonah  i,  5.  This 
was  in  the  cabin  :  probably  the  bed-places  were  along  the 
sides,  as  now  is  often  the  case ;  but  Jonah  soon  learned 
that  no  man  can  hide  himself  from  God,  or  long  enjoy 
repose  when  disobeying  his  commands.  The  prophet  Eze- 
kiel  gives  the  fullest  account  of  an  ancient  ship,  and  de- 
scribes one  of  the  largest  and  most  complete  :  see  ch.  xxvii. 
To  such  a  noble  vessel  he  compares  the  city  of  Tyre,  which 
existed  and  flourished  by  its  trade  and  commerce.  "  The 
walls  round  about,"  (ver.  11,)  were  stages  projecting  from 
the  sides  of  the  ships,  upon  which,  as  is  shown  upon  ancient 
medals,  the  soldiers  hung  their  shields,  and  stood  to  fight. 
The  towers  were  high  places  upon  the  forecastle. 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  91 

In  the  passages  mentioned  are  one  or  two  other  points 
to  notice.  When  the  men  in  Jonah's  ship  were  in  danger 
and  afraid,  "  every  man  cried  unto  his  god,"  ch.  i,  5.  Per- 
sons who  have  been  on  board  ships  with  a  crew  of  Roman 
Catholic  sailors  during  a  storm,  describe  similar  scenes. 
The  frightened  sailors  then  call  upon  different  saints  to  pro- 
tect and  save  them. 

The  ship  of  Alexandria,  (Acts  xxviii,  11,)  in  which  Paul 
sailed  from  Malta  to  Syracuse,  had  for  its  sign  Castor  and 
Pollux.  These  were  two  idols  worshiped  by  the  heathens, 
by  whose  name  this  ship  was  called,  and  to  whose  care  it 
was  committed  ;  it  doubtless  had  images  of  those  gods,  as 
was  usual  in  ancient  ships.  This  vessel,  and  the  one  wrecked 
at  Mehta,  doubtless  were  employed  in  the  carrying  corn 
from  Egypt  to  Rome. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  FINE    ARTS   AND   IMAGES. 

THE  FINE  ARTS. 

The  Jews  did  not  possess  much  knowledge  of  what  are 
called  the  fine  arts,  such  as  sculpture  and  painting ;  many 
beautiful  specimens  of  which  abounded  in  Italy  and 
Greece,  particularly  at  Athens,  where  the  apostle  Paul's 
spirit  was  stirred  within  him,  when  he  beheld  the  people 
worshiping  these  idols  ;  nor  was  their  beauty  any  excuse 
for  the  idolatry.  He  bore  testimony  against  them  on  the 
very  spot  itself.  Acts  xvii.  Some  of  the  very  same  sculp- 
tures which  he  then  beheld,  are  now  in  the  British  Museum. 
However,  when  the  Israelites  left  the  land  of  Egypt,  it  is 
evident  that  some  among  them  must  have  possessed  know- 
ledge of  this  sort,  for  they  made  a  molten  calf  and  fashioned 
it  with  a  graving  tool,  Exod.  xxxii,  4  ;  and,  after  their 
arrival  in  the  land  of  Canaan,  Micah  employed  a  founder 
who  made  a  graven  image  and  a  molten  image,  Judg.  xvii,  4. 
Bezaleel  and  Aholiab  appear  to  have  been  especially  di- 
rected by  the  Lord  in  cutting  the  precious  stones,  and  in 
all  the  beautiful  works  they  executed  for  the  tabernacle, 
Exod.  XXXV,  30-35.  There  is  little  mention  of  anything  of 
this  sort  afterwards,  till  the  time  of  Solomon,  who  was 


92  JEWISH  NATION. 

obliged  to  employ  a  foreign  artist  from  Tyre,  2  Chron. 
ii,  7,  13,  14,  to  plan  and  direct  the  works  of  the  temple. 

If  the  simple  mode  of  life  pursued  by  the  Israelites  for 
many  years  after  their  settlement  in  Canaan  is  considered, 
it  is  plain  that  there  would  be  little  or  no  employment  for 
persons  skilled  in  the  arts  of  luxury.  The  second  com- 
mandment also  expressly  forbade  the  use  of  sculpture  (or 
making  images)  and  painting,  the  purposes  to  which  those 
arts  were  then  almost  entirely  confined.  The  chief  employ- 
ment of  such  artists  then,  and  even  in  later  days,  was  to 
make  the  images  of  deities,  which  the  heathen  worshiped ; 
so  that  where  the  worship  of  false  gods  was  prohibited, 
there  would  be  little  demand  for  their  labors.  The  histo- 
ries of  Greece  and  Rome,  and  a  sight  of  the  articles  dug 
from  the  ruins  of  ancient  cities  fully  explain  this ;  among 
them  are  many  images,  which  were  placed  in  the  houses, 
and  were  supposed  to  be  protectors  of  the  families.  Such 
is  the  case  now  among  heathens ;  although  to  us  it  appears 
very  absurd  that  people  should  suppose  a  piece  of  wood  or 
metal,  which  they  have  just  carved  or  purchased,  could 
guard  them  from  evil  and  danger.  There  is  a  striking  de- 
scription of  idols  in  Psa.  cxxxv,  15-18.  The  ancient  sculp- 
tures in  the  Egyptian  tombs  represent  the  making  and 
painting  of  idols. 

An  ancient  author  has  well  exposed  this  folly.  He  re- 
presents the  master  of  a  family  going  to  a  sculptor's  shop 
to  buy  a  god,  for  a  long  time  puzzled  which  to  choose,  and 
at  last  disputing  with  the  workman  respecting  a  few  pence 
in  the  price  of  a  Jupiter ! 

The  silver  shrines  for  Diana,  made  at  Ephesus,  (Acts  xix, 
24,)  were  little  images  of  this  sort,  or  perhaps  models  of 
that  temple,  as  models  of  the  sepulchre  at  Jerusalem,  and 
of  Popish  shrines,  are  now  made  and  sold.  But  the  house- 
hold deities  or  teraphim,  the  molten  and  graven  images, 
such  as  those  in  the  house  of  Micah,  (Judges  xviii,  14,)  were 
fanciful  figures  of  supposed  deities. 

Let  me  ask  youthful  readers  how  they  would  feel  if 
their  father  went  to  a  shop  where  plaster  figures  are  sold, 
or  to  one  of  the  image-boys  who  go  about  the  streets,  and 
when  he  had  bought  one  of  the  figures,  if  he  should  bring 
it  home,  and  order  them  to  worship  it  ?  Or  what  would 
servants  think  of  a  master  who  gravely  told  them  that  such 


MANNERS  AND   CUSTOMS.  93 

a  thing  could  preserve  them  from  evil  ?  But  similar  pro- 
ceedings really  take  place  in  heathen  countries.  A  few 
years  ago,  there  was  an  account,  in  the  letter  of  a  mission- 
ary, about  a  boy  who  came  to  school  in  India,  where  he 
learned  respecting  Christ,  and  to  repeat  the  command- 
ments. His  parents  one  day  ordered  him  to  worship  an 
image  which  they  had  lately  bought ;  but  he  knew  that  it 
was  sinful,  and  refused  to  do  so.  He  patiently  endured  a 
great  deal  of  ill-treatment :  at  length  his  parents  saw  that 
he  was  dutiful  in  all  other  respects,  and  they  did  not  any 
longer  require  him  to  worship  their  image. 

Lamentable  as  the  folly  of  worshiping  idols  may  ap- 
pear, there  are  similar  practices,  not  only  in  heathen  lands, 
but  in  countries  called  Christian,  and  even  in  our  own  day. 
It  is  related  of  Louis  XL,  king  of  France,  a  most  cruel  and 
vile  character,  that  he  wore  a  great  number  of  small  images 
of  saints  around  his  hat,  and  that,  when  he  was  in  any 
great  trouble,  he  used  to  kneel  down,  take  out  one  or  other 
of  the  images,  put  it  on  the  table,  and  pray  to  it !  Dr. 
Moore  saw  a  great  number  of  shops  at  Loretto,  in  Italy,  a 
few  years  ago,  which  were  full  of  these  little  images.  Tra- 
velers may  notice  the  same  in  all  countries  where  the 
Romish  religion  prevails.  Jowett  represents  the  pagan 
traffic  for  shrines,  and  other  idolatrous  articles,  graphically 
described  by  the  prophet,  (Isa.  xliv,  9-18,)  as  being  in  full 
activity  in  Romish  countries  even  now.  They  are  openly 
sold,  and  many  persons  got  their  livelihood  by  making 
them. 

After  a  time,  when  the  Israelites  began  to  follow  the 
wicked  customs  of  the  idolatrous  nations  around  them,  they 
had  workmen  to  make  their  images.  Such  persons  are  de- 
scribed by  the  prophets,  Jer.  x,  3-5  ;  and  Isa.  xl,  20 ;  xliv, 
17-20.  Various  passages  in  the  books  of  Kings  and 
Chronicles  show  that  images  were  made,  and  even  set  up 
in  the  temple,  by  the  kings,  particularly  Manasseh.  See 
2  Chron.  xxxiii,  7.  Many  passages  in  those  books  awfully 
describe  the  manner  in  which  the  Jews  refused  to  listen  to 
the  repeated  warnings  of  the  prophets  against  their  idolatry, 
until,  at  length,  they  were  carried  captive  to  Babylon. 
Since  that  time,  down  to  the  present  day,  the  Jews  never 
have  worshiped  graven  images. 

The  prophet  Ezekiel  (viii,  8-12)  speaks  of  chambers  of 


94  JEWISH  NATION. 

imagery.  This  is  strikingly  illustrated  by  the  tombs  of 
Egypt,  which  often  have  several  rooms  cut  out  in  the  rock, 
the  walls  literally  covered  with  figures.  These  are  sculp- 
tured or  cut  out,  till  they  are  slightly  raised  on  the  surface 
of  the  wall,  and  then  painted.  Belzoni  ascertained  the 
process  from  unfinished  specimens,  and  fully  describes  it. 


CHAPTER  X. 
NATURAL  HISTORY— PHILOSOPHY. 

The  Jews  were  well  informed  on  subjects  of  natural  his- 
tory. They  were  acquainted  with  the  nature  of  the  dif- 
ferent animals  and  plants,  and  other  objects  of  creation. 
But  their  knowledge  on  these  points  was  very  inferior  to 
that  which  we  enjoy.  In  this,  as  in  other  respects,  more 
talents  are  committed  to  our  care  ;  let  us  beware  of  neglect- 
mg  to  use  them  aright.  Matt,  xxv,  29.  Solomon  was  skilled 
in  the  sciences.  "  He  spake  of  trees,  from  the  cedar-tree 
that  is  in  Lebanon,  even  unto  the  hyssop  that  springeth  out 
of  the  wall :  he  spake  also  of  beasts,  and  of  fowl,  and  of 
creeping  things,  and  of  fishes,"  1  Kings  iv,  33.  This,  as 
well  as  other  knowledge,  was  given  in  answer  to  his  prayer 
for  wisdom,  2  Chron.  i,  7-12. 

There  are  also  other  places  in  the  Bible,  which  show  that 
the  Jews,  and  other  nations,  were  not  ignorant  on  these 
subjects.  There  are  many  beautiful  passages  in  the  Book 
of  Job,  (see  chaps,  xxxvii  to  xli,)  which  prove  that  the 
patriarchs  were  accustomed  to  observe  the  works  of  God, 
and  the  wonders  of  creation.  The  Book  of  Job  is  one  of  the 
most  ancient  parts  of  Scripture.  Moses  also  frequently  re- 
fers to  animals  in  a  manner  which  shows  that  he  was  well 
acquainted  with  all  circumstances  respecting  them.  From 
Psalm  viii,  it  is  plain  that  David  used  to  study  the  works 
of  creation ;  indeed,  pious  persons  in  all  ages  have  endea- 
vored to  acquaint  themselves,  more  or  less,  with  the  works 
of  the  Almighty.  Those  who  live  in  the  country  have  the 
best  opportunity  for  making  such  observations.  Let  them 
turn  to  what  is  said  about  the  ant.  Pro  v.  vi,  6 ;  xxx,  25 ; 
about  the  spider,  Job  viii,  14 ;  Prov.  xxx,  28 ;  the  horse. 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  95 

Job  xxxix,  19 ;  Psa.  xxxiii,  17  ;  the  eagle,  Deut.  xxxii,  11 ; 
the  coney,  Prov.  xxx,  26 ;  the  wild  ass,  Job  xxxix,  5-8 ; 


THE  WILD  ASS. 

and  elsewhere  of  other  animals  and  plants, — they  may  learn 
useful  lessons.  Let  them  remember,  that  the  texts  in  which 
things  respecting  these  animals  are  alluded  to,  explain  other 
passages ;  thus,  "  as  a  sheep  before  her  shearers  is  dumb," 
(Isa.  liii,  7,)  explains  how  patiently  Christ  endured  all  the 
pains  he  suffered  for  us.  The  lamb  without  blemish  or 
spot,  (Lev.  ix,  3  ;  1  Pet.  i,  19,)  showed  that  Christ  was  holy, 
harmless,  and  undefiled. 

With  respect  to  astronomy  and  the  heavenly  bodies,  the 
knowledge  in  ancient  times  was  more  limited :  they  had  not 
the  advantage  of  telescopes.  Yet  from  several  passages  in 
Job  and  elsewhere,  it  is  plain  that  they  observed  the  stars, 
and  all  the  host  of  heaven.  The  inhabitants  of  the  country 
round  Babylon  early  observed  the  stars  with  great  accuracy, 
and  ascertained  much  respecting  the  motions  of  the  heavenly 
bodies.  The  wonders  they  beheld  caused  them  to  worship 
the  host  of  heaven,  which  was  the  earliest  species  of  idolatry. 
Job  alludes  to  this  (ch.  xxvi,  1)  when,  speaking  of  the  power 
of  God,  he  says,  "  He  hangeth  the  earth  upon  nothing :" 
which  proves  that  they  understood  something  about  the 
wonderful  manner  in  which  the  earth  is,  as  it  were,  suspended 
in  the  heavens.  But  the  Bible  was  written  to  make  men 
wise  imto  salvation,  under  the  teaching  of  God  the  Holy 


96  JEWISH  NATION. 

Spirit.  This  is  so  fully  set  forth,  that  even  a  plain  man  may 
understand  the  evil  of  sin,  and  the  truths  of  the  gospel ; 
though  he  may  be  very  much  puzzled  to  make  out  a  learned 
book  about  natural  history  or  astronomy.  When  any  re- 
mark is  made  respecting  the  sun,  moon,  and  other  heavenly 
bodies,  they  are  usually  spoken  of  just  as  they  appear  to 
our  view. 

The  ancient  Greek  philosophers  principally  derived  what 
good  there  is  in  their  systems  from  the  Jews.  Thales  was 
in  Egypt  at  the  time  when  many  of  them  were  captive  in 
that  land ;  and  there  is  good  reason  to  beheve  that  Pjrtha- 
goras  was  in  Judea,  and  also  had  much  intercourse  with  the 
captives  at  Babylon. 


CHAPTER  XL 

DIVISIONS    OF     TIME. 

The  Eastern  computations  of  time  by  days,  months,  and 
years,  were  made  from  observations  of  the  heavenly  bodies. 
The  Jewish  day  was  reckoned  from  evening  to  evening. 
Lev.  xxiii,  32.  In  the  account  of  the  creation,  (Gen.  i,)  the 
evening  is  mentioned  before  the  morning.  The  day  varied 
in  length  at  different  times  of  the  year ;  but  not  so  much  as 
in  England,  Judea  being  more  to  the  south.  The  longest 
day  is  about  fourteen  hours,  consequently  the  shortest  is 
about  ten.  The  day  was  divided  into  four  parts,  Neh.  ix,  3 ; 
afterwards  into  twelve  hours.  Sun-dials  were  constructed 
to  mark  the  divisions  of  time.  The  ancients  had  no  clocks 
or  watches  like  ours ;  but  they  had  some  contrivances  to 
find  out  how  time  passed :  as  by  cups  with  very  small  holes 
in  the  bottom,  which,  being  put  to  float  in  a  vessel  of  water, 
would  sink  in  a  certain  space  of  time ;  or  by  burning  long 
candles  with  marks  along  them,  or  other  methods. 

The  first  mention  of  hours  is  Dan.  iii,  6,  15 :  and,  as  the 
Jews  were  then  captives  in  Babylon,  it  is  probable  they 
learned  this  division  of  time  from  the  Chaldeans,  who  were 
great  astronomers.  The  hours  were  counted  from  six  in 
the  morning  to  six  in  the  evening ;  consequently,  the  third 
hour  was  our  nine  in  the  morning,  the  ninth  hour  was  our 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  97 

three  in  the  afternoon :  see  Mat.  xx,  3,  5,  6,  9 ;  many  other 
texts  are  explained  by  this.  The  night  was  at  first  divided 
into  three  parts,  called '  watches :  see  Lam.  ii,  19;  Judg. 
vii,  19;  Exod.  xiv,  24.  These  divisions  would  be  longest 
in  winter  ;  and  it  is  easy  to  suppose  how  ardently  the  morn- 
ing light  would  be  desu*ed  by  those  who  watched  during  a 
long,  severe  winter  night,  Psa.  cxxx,  6.  In  the  time  of  our 
Saviour,  the  night  was  divided  into  four  watches :  see  Mark 
xi'.i,  35. 

The  two  evenings,  Exod.  xii,  6,  margin,  was  the  time 
between  three  and  five.  Tlie  paschal  lamb  was  sacrificed  at 
that  time.  Our  blessed  Lord,  who  was  represented  by  that 
lamb,  expired  at  three,  and  was  taken  down  from  the  cross 
at  sunset,  about  five. 

The  division  of  weeks  has  nothing  to  do  with  the  obser- 
vations, or  the  periods,  of  heavenly  bodies.  It  proceeds 
from  the  institution  of  the  Sabbath,  Gen.  ii,  2.  The  Jewish 
Sabbath  was  on  the  seventh  day,  or  Saturday.  After  the 
resurrection  of  our  blessed  Lord,  the  day  of  rest  was  altered 
to  the  first  day,  that  on  which  he  rose  from  the  dead.  The 
reasons  for  this  are  shown  in  many  books  written  upon  the 
subject. 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  division  of  time  into  weeks,  or 
periods  of  seven  days,  has  been  found  among  heathen  na- 
tions, as  well  as  Jews  and  Christians.  It  was  observed  by 
the  Greeks  and  Romans  of  old,  and  it  is  now  regarded  by 
the  Chinese  and  East  Indians.  It  is  a  striking  proof  that 
all  nations  descended  from  one  parent,  and  that  the  observ- 
ance of  the  Sabbath  was  a  Divine  command,  as  is  recorded 
in  the  Bible, 

The  observance  of  Sabbatical  and  jubilee  years,  (see 
Lev.  XXV,)  had  reference  to  the  institution  of  the  Sabbath. 
Many  texts  direct  the  holy  observance  of  this  day,  and  Sab- 
bath-breaking constantly  leads  on  to  other  crimes.  It  is 
very  sad  to  see  how  common  this  sin  is.  It  is  a  national 
sin,  and  if  persisted  in,  will  bring  down  national  judgments 
upon  Christendom,  as  it  did  on  Judea  of  old,  2  Chron. 
xxxvi,  2 1 .   Let  us  remember  the  Sabbath-day  to  keep  it  holy. 

The  Jewish  months  were  lunar  months ;  that  is,  each  was 
nearly  one  change  or  revolution  of  the  moon,  being  alter- 
nately twenty-nine  and  thirty  days.  Persons  were  set  to 
watch  on  the  tops  of  high  hills  for  the  first  appearance  of  the 

5 


98  JEWISH  NATION. 

new  moon,  of  which  notice  was  given  by  sound  of  trumpet 
and  messengers,  (Psa.  Ixxxi,  3,)  and  the  first  day  was  a 
solemn  feast.  The  solar  year,  or  the  time  in  which  the  earth 
goes  round  the  sun,  being  more  than  twelve  lunar  months, 
the  Jews  were  forced  to  add  a  month  every  second  or  third 
year,  else  the  spring  months  and  festivals,  in  a  few  years, 
would  have  fallen  into  the  middle  of  winter.  The  method 
of  observing  the  time  of  Easter,  which  is  the  same  season 
as  the  passover,  by  making  it  depend  upon  the  moon,  causes 
it  to  come  on  different  days  in  the  months  of  March  and 
April.  The  Jewish  months  were  named  from  the  seasons 
of  the  year.  Thus  Abib,  the  first  month,  (Exod.  xii,  2,) 
means  green :  at  that  time  of  the  year  the  ears  of  com  are 
green.  The  years  were  also  divided  into  six  seasons  of  two 
months  each :  seed-time,  winter,  cold  season,  harvest,  sum- 
mer, and  hot  season.  The  winters  in  Judea  are  very  cold, 
and  the  summers  very  hot.  Notices  of  the  diflferences  in 
the  habits  of  the  people,  caused  by  the  winter,  may  be  found, 
Jer.  XXX vi,  22 ;  Ezra  x,  13  ;  Ezek.  xxxiii,  30  ;  Matt.  xxiv.  20 ; 
John  X,  22.  The  heat  of  summer  is  very  great.  2  Kings 
iv,  19  ;  Psa.  cxxi,  6. 

The  "  third  day  "  is  to  be  counted  by  including  both  the 
day  from  which,  and  to  which,  the  counting  is  made.  Thus 
our  Saviour  was  crucified  on  Friday,  and  rose  again  from 
the  dead  on  Sunday,  the  third  day.  The  same  applies  to 
the  eighth  day,  and  to  other  similar  expressions. 

The  Jews  were  accustomed  to  number  their  years  from 
remarkable  periods.  The  departure  from  Egypt  was  a  very 
memorable  one,  Exod.  xix,  1;  xl,  lY ;  Num.  i,  1 ;  ix,  1 ; 
xxxiii,  38  ;  1  Kings  vi,  1.  Afterward,  from  the  building 
of  the  temple,  1  Kings  ix,  10;  2  Chron.  viii,  1.  Also  the 
Babylonish  captivity,  Ezek.  i,  1 ;  xxxiii,  21 ;  xl,  1. 


MANNERS   AND    CUSTOMS. 


CHAPTER  XII. 


THE    ART  OF  WRITING — BOOKS,    AND    SUBSTANCES 
WRITTEN    UPON. 

THE  ART  OF  WRITING, 

The  art  of  writing  is  of  great  importance  ;  it  conveys  hu- 
man thoughts  by  certain  marks  or  representations :  there  are 
several  methods  by  which  it  was  practiced  in  former  times, 
and  in  later  days.  One  method,  used  by  some  Indians  and 
other  untaught  nations,  is  a  kind  of  picture  writing,  or 
drawing,  to  represent  the  things  which  the  writer  desires  to 
tell  to  others.  The  Rev.  T.  H.  Home,  in  a  work  which  he  has 
written  about  books,  copies  a  drawing  of  this  sort  made 
by  some  North  American  Indians,  which  represents  one  of 
their  expeditions  against  their  enemies.  Similar  drawings 
of  the  ancient  Mexicans  have  been  copied  by  other  authors. 
Another  sort  of  picture  writing  was  much  used  by  the 
Egyptians  :  it  is  called  hieroglyphic  writing.  The  first  sort 
of  picture  writing  only  represents  things ;  but  this  repre- 
sents ideas  or  thoughts.  For  instance,  an  eye  represented 
God,  who  sees  all  things  ;  a  sword,  a  cruel  tyrant ;  an  eye 
and  sceptre,  a  king ;  a  lion  represented  courage ;  armies 
were  meant  by  hands  with  weapons.  There  are  cards  and 
books  to  amuse  children,  with  pictures,  or  hieroglyphics, 
not  unlike  the  sorts  of  wiiting  I  have  just  mentioned.  An 
inscription  on  a  temple  in  Egypt,  expressing  this  moral 
sentence,  "  All  you,  who  come  into  the  world,  and  go  out 
of  it,  know  this — that  the  gods  hate  impudence ;"  was 
represented  by  an  infant,  an  old  man,  a  hawk,  a  fish,  and  a 
river  horse.  It  is  thought  by  some  persons,  that,  from  this 
way  of  representing  religious  and  moral  truths  by  pictures 
of  animals,  the  ancient  Egyptians  came  to  worship  the  ani- 
mals themselves ;  as  the  introducing  images,  or  paintings, 
into  churches,  led  the  people  to  worship  them.  Several 
obelisks,  or  high  pillars,  in  Egypt,  are  covered  with  this 
sort  of  writing.  There  are  two  famous  ones  at  Alexandria, 
called  Cleopatra's  needles,  a  hundred  feet  in  height,  and 
upwards  of  seven  feet  square  at  the  base.  The  four  sides  of 
both  are  richly  adorned  with  hieroglyphics,  cut  an  inch 


100  JEWISH  NATION. 

deep  in  the  granite  stone.  There  is  an  ancient  monumental 
stone,  brought  from  the  ruins  of  Thebes,  in  the  house  of  the 
Religious  Tract  Society  in  London,  which  has  many  hiero- 
glyphics engraved  upon  it. 

Another  sort  of  writing  represents  words  by  marks  of 
different  forms  for  each  word,  instead  of  spelling  them  by 
letters.  Chinese  wiiting  is  of  this  sort :  many  of  the  marks, 
or  signs,  at  first  represented  in  some  degree  the  things 
meant,  as  in  hieroglyphics,  but  by  degrees  they  were  altered 
to  their  present  form.  The  words  in  the  Chinese  language, 
more  than  fifty  thousand  in  number,  are  each  represented 
by  a  different  mark  or  character ;  very  few,  even  of  their 
most  learned  men,  are  acquainted  with  more  than  half,  or 
two-tliirds  of  them.  All  these  methods  are  less  useful  and 
convenient  than  writing  and  spelling  by  means  of  a  few 
alphabetical  letters. 

There  is  not  in  the  Bible  any  account  of  the  invention  of 
writing,  but  there  is  reason  to  believe  that  it  was  known 
to  man  even  before  the  flood.  God  brought  the  beasts  of 
the  field  and  the  birds  of  the  air  to  Adam,  to  see  what  he 
would  call  them.  Gen.  ii,  19  :  and  Adam  gave  names  to  all 
cattle,  and  to  the  fowls  of  the  air,  and  to  every  beast  of  the 
field.  From  this  it  is  plain,  that  God  taught  Adam  the 
language,  or  to  speak  the  words  which  he  used,  to  call  the 
animals  by  their  names.  And  we  may  venture  to  suppose, 
that  God  either  taught  Adam  how  to  write  the  language 
which  he  spoke,  or  that  he  enabled  the  children  of  Adam, 
who  lived  before  the  flood,  to  discover  the  art  of  writing. 
The  Book  of  Genesis  states  that  they  were  acquainted  with 
music,  and  other  arts  and  sciences. 

After  the  flood,  "  the  whole  earth  was  of  one  language 
and  of  one  speech  ;"  and  at  first  they  all  dwelt  in  the  land 
of  Shinar,  near  the  Euphrates.  There  they  began  to  build 
the  Tower  of  Babel,  when  the  Lord  confounded  their  lan- 
guage, so  that  the  different  famiUes  or  tribes  did  not  under- 
stand each  other's  speech,  and  the  Lord  scattered  them 
abroad  upon  the  face  of  the  earth.  Some  went  in  one  di- 
rection, some  in  another ;  they  doubtless  must  have  suffered 
much  trouble,  and  many  difficulties,  in  this  dispersion. 
Their  language  being  changed,  their  methods  of  writing 
would  probably,  like  their  other  arts  and  customs,  become 
changed,  and  even  forgotten  in  a  greater  or  less  degree. 


MANNERS    AND    CUSTOMS.  101 

Those  who  remained  in  or  near  the  land  of  Shinar,  would 
suffer  the  least  from  this  change.  The  forefathers  of 
Abraham  stayed  in  that  country,  as  appears  in  Gen.  xi,  28. 
Learned  men  tell  us  many  reasons  why  we  may  suppose 
that  the  Hebrew  language,  in  which  the  Old  Testament  is 
written,  and  which  was  spoken  by  the  Jews,  is  the  same,  or 
nearly  the  same,  as  the  language  spoken  when  the  whole 
earth  was  of  one  speech.  If  this  be  correct,  we  may  con- 
clude that  the  method  of  writing  used  by  the  Hebrews, 
which  is  spelhng  by  an  alphabet  of  letters,  was  the 
most  ancient  way  of  writing.  The  ancient  Greek  or  Ro- 
man writers  speak  of  these  letters  as  being  first  invented 
and  first  used  by  the  Phenicians.  As  the  Phenicians  lived 
close  to  the  Jews,  the  latter  might  learn  the  art  of  writing 
from  them :  and,  as  they  had  ships,  and  traded  with  Greece 
and  other  nations,  they  probably  taught  the  Jews  how  to 
express  their  thoughts  in  writing. 

How  the  commandments  of  God  and  other  laws  men- 
tioned in  the  Bible  were  written  down,  is  thus  sufficiently 
explained.  It  was  not  by  picture  writing  or  hieroglyphics, 
but  by  letters ;  for  as  these  writings  are  not  mentioned  till 
after  the  Jews  had  become  a  separate  people,  they  would 
be  written  according  to  the  language  then  used.  These 
were  very  similar  to  what  is  called  the  Hebrew  language, 
though  the  letters  rather  differed  in  shape,  as  appears  from 
some  ancient  inscriptions.  The  ancient  Hebrew,  and  the 
languages  similar  to  it,  as  Chaldean,  Samaritan,  and  Sjriac, 
are  written,  not  like  those  of  Europe,  from  the  left  to  the 
right,  but  from  right  to  left ;  so  that  you  begin  to  read  at 
the  other  end  of  the  line,  and  the  other  end  of  the  book, 
from  what  you  do  in  English. 

The  earliest  mention  of  writing  we  find  in  the  Bible,  is 
in  Exodus  xvii,  14.  God  commanded  Moses  to  write  in  a 
book  the  memorial  of  the  defeat  of  Amelek,  and  said  that 
he  would  utterly  put  out  the  remembrance  of  Amelek  from 
under  heaven.  This  direction  to  write  was  not  mentioned 
as  a  new  thing ;  we  may,  therefore,  conclude  that  writing 
had  been  practiced  before. 

The  next  passage  is  Exod.  xxiv,  4,  where  we  find  that 
"  Moses  wrote  all  the  words  of  the  Lord."  And  xxxi,  18, 
when  the  Lord  had  made  an  end  of  communing  with  Moses 
upon  Mount  Sinai,  he  gave  unto  Moses  "  two  tables  of  tes- 


102  JEWISH    NATION. 

timony,  tables  of  stone,  written  with  the  finger  of  God." 
These  contained  the  ten  commandments  ;  and  when  Moses 
saw  the  children  of  Israel  worshiping  the  golden  calf,  "  he 
cast  the  tables  out  of  his  hands,  and  brake  them  beneath 
the  mount,"  (ch.  xxxii,  19,)  to  show  that  the  Israelites  had 
broken  the  law  of  God.  In  ch.  xxxiv,  1,  "the  Lord  said 
unto  Moses,  Hew  thee  two  tables  of  stone  like  unto  the 
first :  and  I  will  write  upon  these  tables  the  words  that 
were  in  the  first  tables,  which  thou  brakest."  And,  in 
verse  28,  we  read  that  the  Lord  "wrote  upon  the  tables  the 
words  of  the  covenant ;"  that  is,  the  ten  commandments. 
In  one  respect  these  differed  from  the  first  tables,  which 
were  the  work  of  God ;  they  were  made  by  Moses,  but  the 
writing  was  the  same  in  both,  "  the  writing  of  God,  graven 
upon  the  tables,"  ch.  xxxii,  16.  These  tables  were  put  into 
the  ark,  and  kept  there.  The  two  tables  of  stone  were  in 
the  ark  when  Solomon  caused  it  to  be  carried  into  the 
temple,  1  Kings  viii,  9  ;  after  which  time  there  is  no  account 
of  the  ark,  nor  of  the  tables  of  stone.  They  probably 
perished  when  the  temple  was.  destroyed  by  the  Babylo- 
nians. The  candlesticks,  table  of  shew-bread,  trumpets, 
and  other  articles,  were  replaced  by  new  ones,  or  given  back 
by  the  Babylonians,  and  remained  till  Jerusalem  was  taken 
by  the  Romans. 

During  the  first  ages,  when  the  patriarchs  lived  a  great 
many  years,  the  will  of  the  Lord  was  easily  handed  down 
from  one  generation  to  another,  by  the  fathers  teUing  their 
sons  what  had  passed.  But  when  the  Israelites  were  de- 
livered from  Egypt,  the  hfe  of  man  had  been  shortened ; 
many  more  instructions  also  were  given  about  sacrifices  and 
offerings.  It  was  necessary  that  these  directions  should  be 
preserved  correctly,  which  could  only  be  done  by  writing. 
Therefore,  the  Lord  ordered  Moses,  "Write  thou  these 
words,"  Exod.  xxxiv,  27.  And,  in  Deut.  xxxi,  9,  "  Moses 
wrote  this  law,  and  delivered  it  unto  the  priests."  It  was 
also  directed  that  when  they  had  a  king,  he  should  "  write 
him  a  copy  of  this  law  in  a  book,  out  of  that  which  is  before 
the  priests  and  Levites :  and  it  shall  be  with  him,  and  he 
shall  read  therein  all  the  days  of  his  life,  that  he  may  learn 
to  fear  the  Lord  his  God,  to  keep  all  the  words  of  this  law 
and  these  statutes,  to  do  them,"  Deut.  xvii,  18,  19. 

There  are  directions  concerning  the  writing  of  parts  of 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  103 

the  law,  or  the  promises  of  the  Lord,  to  those  who  kept  his 
covenant :  they  were  to  be  bound  upon  their  hands,  and  as 
frontlets  between  their  eyes.  They  were  to  be  taught  to 
their  children,  and  to  be  written  upon  the  door-posts  of 
their  houses,  and  upon  their  gates,  Deut.  xi,  18-20.  God 
further  commanded  the  children  of  Israel,  "  On  the  day 
when  ye  shall  pass  over  Jordan  unto  the  land  which  the 
Lord  thy  God  giveth  thee,  thou  shalt  set  thee  up  great 
stones,  and  plaster  them  with  plaster :  and  thou  shalt  write 
upon  them  all  the  words  of  this  law,  when  thou  art  passed 
over :  and  ye  shall  set  up  these  stones  in  Mount  Ebal,  and 
thou  shalt  write  upon  the  stones  all  the  words  of  this  law 
very  plainly,"  Deut.  xxvii,  2-4,  8.  When  Joshua  conquered 
the  land,  and  came  to  Ebal,  **  he  wrote  there  upon  the  stones 
a  copy  of  the  law  of  Moses,  in  the  presence  of  the  children 
of  Israel,"  Josh,  viii,  32. 

Thus  the  law  of  the  Lord  was  a  written  law ;  and  upon 
several  occasions  the  words  of  the  law  were  publicly  read 
to  the  people.  It  is  supposed  this  was  done  in  the  year  of 
jubilee,  or  every  seventh  year.  When  Ezra  brought  the 
book  of  the  law  of  Moses,  and  read  therein  to  the  people, 
with  the  assistance  of  some  of  the  Levites,  he  gave  the  sense, 
and  caused  them  to  understand  the  meaning :  see  Nehemiah 
viii,  7-9.  After  the  return  of  the  Jews  from  Babylon,  por- 
tions of  the  law  were  always  read  in  the  synagogues :  this  cus- 
tom still  continues  among  the  Jews.  Our  Lord  read  to  the 
Jews  in  their  synagogues,  and  taught  from  the  words  of  the 
law  and  the  prophets :  see' Luke  iv,  16 ;  Matt,  xiii,  64 ;  John 
xviii,  20, 

There  are  many  passages  in  the  Scriptures  which  tell  us 
that  the  will  of  God  is  fully  revealed  in  his  holy  word.  Our 
Lord  repeatedly  rebuked  the  Jews  for  laying  aside  the  com- 
mandments of  God,  and  teaching  the  doctrines  of  men  in- 
stead ;  thus  "making  the  word  of  God  of  none  eflPect  through 
their  traditions,"  Mark  vii,  3-13.  This  is  not  contradicted 
by  the  apostle  Paul,  when  he  tells  the  brethren  to  stand 
fast,  and  to  hold  the  traditions  they  have  been  taught, 
2  Thess.  ii,  15 ;  for  the  original  plainly  shows,  that  the 
apostle  here  refers  to  the  things  which  were  taught,  or 
handed  down  to  them  in  the  Scriptures. 

But  the  Roman  Catholics  and  some  others  teach  things 
that  are  not  commanded  in  the  Bible,  which  they  pretend 


104  JEWISH   NATION. 

were  spoken  by  our  Lord  and  holy  men  of  old,  and  say  that 
they  have  been  repeated,  from  fathers  to  their  sons,  to  the 
present  time.  Now,  many  of  these  things  are  quite  con- 
trary to  what  is  written  in  the  Scriptures,  so  that  it  is  evi- 
dent both  cannot  be  true ;  and  this  is  the  great  reason  why 
Roman  Catholic  priests  object  to  people  reading  the  Bible. 
John  Fox  well  knew  the  value  of  the  art  of  printing,  as  ap- 
plied to  increase  the  number  of  copies  of  the  Bible  and  good 
works.  He  said  that  the  pope  must  abolish  printing,  or 
printing  would  abolish  him.  He  added,  "  By  this  printing, 
as  by  the  gift  of  tongues,  and  as  by  the  singular  organ  of 
the  Holy  Spirit,  the  doctrine  of  the  gospel  soundeth  to  all 
nations  and  countries  under  heaven.  What  God  revealed 
to  one  man,  thus  is  dispersed  to  many;  and  what  is  known 
to  one  nation  is  opened  to  all."  But  since  printing  was  not 
known  to  the  ancients,  it  is  only  mentioned  here  as  showing 
how  God  causes  fresh  means  of  making  known  his  will  to 
be  found  out,  whenever  he  sees  fit  that  others  should  be  dis- 
continued. Let  us  hold  fast  the  word  of  God,  "  Not  as  the 
word  of  men,  but  as  it  is  in  truth,  the  word  of  God,"  1  Thess. 
ii,  13.  Especially  may  the  young  remember  what  the  aged 
apostle  John  says  :  "  I  have  written  unto  you,  young  men, 
because  ye  are  strong,  and  the  word  of  God  abideth  in  you, 
and  ye  have  overcome  the  wicked  one,"  1  John  ii,  14. 

BOOKS  A^I>  SUBSTAITCES  WRITTEN"  UPON. 

The  commandments  were  "tlie  writing  of  God,  graven 
upon  the  tables."  These  tables  were  flat,  thin  pieces  of 
stone.  Also,  the  names  of  the  children  of  Israel,  worn  upon 
the  high  priest's  shoulders,  were  engraved  on  precious  stones 
with  the  work  of  an  engraver,  like  the  engravings-  of  a  signet 
or  seal.  For  the  high  priest's  mitre  it  was  directed,  "  Thou 
shalt  make  a  plate  of  pure  gold,  and  grave  upon  it,  hke  the 
engravings  of  a  signet,  Holiness  unto  the  Lord." 

The  letters  were  engraved  or  cut  into  various  hard  sub- 
stances that  they  might  last,  and  not  be  rubbed  out  like 
common  writing.  When  Job  wished  that  his  words  should 
be  preserved,  he  says,  "  O,  that  they  were  graven  with  an 
iron  pen  and  lead  in  the  rock  forever !"  Job  xix,  24.  This 
method  of  writing  is  still  used  for  inscriptions  ;  but  it  was 
more  common  formerly.     Among  the  ruins  of  ancient  cities 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  105 


STONE  OF  WITNESS. 
Ebenezer,  1  Sam.  vii,  12. 

in  Persia,  Egypt,  and  Greece,  many  long  inscriptions  are 
found  engraved  upon  the  walls  of  buildings,  and  upon  the 
rocks.  In  a  part  of  Arabia,  near  Mount  Sinai,  there  are 
large  rocks  covered  with  writing ;  but  the  meaning  of  the 
words  cannot  be  made  out.  Major  Denham,  who  lately 
traveled  in  Africa,  also  found  long  inscriptions  cut  into  the 
rocks  in  several  places. 

The  engraving  of  writing,  or  cutting  the  letters  upon  hard 
substances,  was  very  general  in  cases  of  importance,  being 
much  more  lasting  than  other  methods.  When  Mr.  Bu- 
chanan was  in  India,  the  Jews  in  Malabar  showed  him  a 
brass  plate,  on  which  was  engraved  the  grant  of  some  privi- 
leges from  an  ancient  king,  about  A.  D.  490.  He  found 
similar  tablets  in  the  possession  of  the  Syrian  Christians  in 
the  south  of  India.  Some  of  these,  and  copies  of  others, 
are  in  the  public  library  at  Cambridge.  It  has  been  sup- 
posed that  Samuel  engraved  the  word  Ebenezer  on  the 
stone  he  set  up  when  God  had  smitten  the  Philistines, 
1  Sam.  vii,  12.  This  method  of  writing  was  practiced,  in 
later  times,  on  wood  and  other  substances. 

To  the  law  of  God  being  engraven,  the  apostle  refers, 
when  describing  the  work  of  God  the  Holy  Spirit  upon  the 


106  JEWISH  NATION. 

heart  of  the  believer.  He  speaks  of  it  as  written  not  with 
ink,  which  might  be  rubbed  out,  but  as  engraved  or  cut  into 
the  substance  ;  and  not  upon  tables  of  stone,  but  upon  the 
heart  of  the  believer,  2  Chron.  iii,  3  :  see  also  Jer.  xxxi,  33  ; 
Ezek.  xi,  1 9.  My  readers,  may  the  Lord  write  his  law  in 
your  hearts,  and  be  your  God,  making  you  his  followers, 
forgiving  your  iniquity,  and  blotting  out  the  writing  that  is 
against  you.  For  dreadful  is  the  state  of  those  in  whom 
sin  is  graven  upon  the  table  of  their  hearts,  Jer.  xvii,  1. 
Let  us  earnestly  pray  that  this  may  not  be  our  case ;  but 
that  God  will  put  his  truths  into  our  minds,  enabling  us  to 
do  his  will  in  all  things. 

And  if  the  law  of  the  Lord  be  thus  engraved  in  our 
hearts,  we  must  beware  lest  we  should  be  satisfied  to  let 
it  be  obscured  or  covered  with  the  evil  which  by  nature 
cleaves  to  our  hearts,  even  as  a  writing  engraved  upon  a 
stone  may  be  covered  over  with  dirt  or  rubbish,  as  is  often 
seen  on  old  grave-stones.  Remember,  God  says,  "  My  son, 
give  me  thy  heart,"  Prov.  xxiii,  26.  He  will  not  be  satis- 
fied with  a  divided  heart ;  and  he  also  commanded,  *'  Keep 
thy  heart  with  all  diligence ;  for  out  of  it  are  the  issues  of 
life,"  Prov.  iv,  23.  But  it  is  the  Lord  himself  who  en- 
graves the  graving  thereof,  Zech.  iii,  9 ;  and  upon  him  that 
overcometh  will  be  written  the  name  of  the  Lord:  see 
Rev.  iii,  12  ;  and  that  writing  shall  not  perish  or  decay. 
Reader,  watch  over  your  heart ;  pray  that  God  the  Holy 
Spirit  may  sanctify,  or  make  it  holy. 

Job  expresses  his  desire  that  his  words  should  be  writ- 
ten upon  lead,  as  well  as  on  a  rock,  chap,  xix,  24.  Montfau- 
Qon,  in  the  year  1699,  purchased  at  Rome  an  ancient  book, 
entirely  of  lead,  four  inches  long,  and  three  inches  wide ; 
it  had  six  leaves,  and  two  covers,  and  was  written  over  with 
ancient  Egyptian  figures,  and  writing  he  could  not  under- 
stand. Such  a  book  would  need  a  pen  of  iron,  and  a 
diamond  point  might  be  used,  as  Jer.  xvii,  1. 

Brass,  or  rather  copper,  was  used  for  matters  of  import- 
ance. In  the  first  book  of  Maccabees,  we  read  of  treaties 
between  the  Romans  and  the  Jews  written  on  tables  of 
brass,  chap,  viii,  22,  and  xiv,  18  ;  and  although  the  books 
of  Maccabees  are  not  the  word  of  God,  yet  they  may  be 
referred  to  for  information  as  to  history  and  customs,  for 
they  were  certainly  written  a  very  long  time  ago.     It  was 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  107 

the  custom  of  the  Romans  to  preserve  their  laws  and 
records  upon  tablets  of  brass  ;  and  it  is  related,  that  a  fire 
in  the  capitol  at  Rome,  in  Vespasian's  reign,  destroyed  three 
thousand  of  these  tablets.  The  ancient  tablets  of  brass  dis- 
covered by  Dr.  Buchanan  in  India,  have  been  already  noticed : 
they  are  six  in  number ;  upon  the  plate  said  to  be  the  oldest, 
the  writing  is  hke  that  on  the  bricks  foimd  at  Babylon. 

Among  the  ruins  of  Babylon,  bricks  are  found  with  in- 
scriptions upon  them.  The  letters  or  marks  are  shaped 
like  the  heads  of  arrows  or  nails,  but  no  one  has  yet  been 
fully  able  to  make  out  their  meaning.  It  is  supposed  they 
may  have  been  part  of  the  tower  of  Babel :  whether  this  is 
correct  or  not,  they  must  be  very  ancient.  The  writing  has 
been  engraved,  or  impressed  into  these  bricks.  Ezekiel 
portrayed  Jerusalem  upon  such  flat  brick  or  tile,  Ezek.iv,  1. 

Wood  was  frequently  used.  Sometimes  the  tablets  of 
wood  were  engraved,  the  letters  being  cut  into  them :  or  a 
thin  coat  of  wax  was  spread  over  the  wood,  and  the  words 
were  scratched  upon  the  wax,  with  a  sharp-pointed  metal 
bodkin,  or  a  stick.  Sometimes  the  words  were  written  with 
ink  upon  the  tablets.  The  writing  upon  sticks,  mentioned 
Ezek.  xxxvii,  16,  appears  to  have  been  engraved  or  cut 
into  them.  In  our  own  country,  in  former  times,  words 
were  engraved  upon  sticks,  which  were  put  into  a  wooden 
frame  :  some  of  these  still  exist.  Almanacs  also  were  cut 
upon  sticks :  these  may  still  be  found  among  the  inhabi- 
tants of  Sweden. 

The  ancient  letters  sent  by  persons,  one  to  another,  were 
in  general  written  upon  tablets  of  wood.  The  difierent 
pieces  were  tied  together  with  a  thread  or  string,  and  a  seal 
from  an  engraved  signet  was  put  upon  the  knot,  so  that 
no  one  could  read  what  was  written  till  the  seal  was  broken. 

Among  the  natives  of  Africa,  and  in  the  East,  it  is  very 
common  to  have  writing-boards,  like  schoolboys'  slates, 
upon  which  persons  write  with  ink,  and  rub  it  out  when 
done  with.  When  Park  was  at  Koolkorro,  in  Africa,  his 
landlord  brought  him  a  writing-board,  asking  him  to  write 
upon  it.  Park  did  so  :  the  African  then  washed  the  writing 
from  the  board,  and  drank  the  water ;  for  the  poor  igno- 
rant man  thought  this  would  protect  him  from  harm  !  Such 
tablets  of  wood  are  commonly  used  in  schools  in  those  coun- 
tries.    The  prophets  sometimes  wrote  upon  tables  of  wood ; 


108  JEWISH   NATION. 

see  Isa.  xxx,  8  ;  Hab.  ii,  2  :  the  writing  table  which  Zacha- 
rias  made  signs  for,  when  desired  to  name  his  son,  (Luke 
i,  63,)  was  a  wooden  tablet ;  perhaps  it  was  covered  with 
wax.  Such  a  table  is  mentioned,  Isa.  xxx,  8  ;  what  was 
written  thereon  would  be  openly  seen.  The  prophet  Ha- 
bakkuk  was  thus  to  make  his  vision  plain  upon  tables,  ii,  2. 
In  this  manner  the  Romans  caused  their  laws  to  be  written 
on  tables  of  brass,  and  hung  up  in  pubhc.  Such  tablets  are 
mentioned  by  Greek  and  Roman  writers,  and  were  used  in 
England  till  after  the  year  1300. 

Leaves  were  formerly  used,  and  still  are  so,  for  writing 
upon;  many  ancient  authors  mention  them.  In  India, 
particularly  in  Ceylon,  they  use  the  leaves  of  some  trees 
which  are  very  broad  and  thick ;  these  are  cut  into  slips, 
and  smoothed  :  they  write  upon  them  with  sharp-pointed 
bodkins.  To  make  a  book,  several  leaves  are  strung  toge- 
ther. These  leaves  are  called  ollas,  and  the  missionaries 
have  frequently  used  them  for  writing  tracts  upon.  But 
this  way  of  preparing  tracts  is  veiy  expensive,  and  the 
leaves  are  liable  to  break,  so  that  they  now  use  paper,  and 
print  the  tracts.  But  children  in  India  often  write  their 
lessons  on  the  ground,  or  in  sand  strewed  for  that  purpose. 
Thus  Jer.  xvii,  13  ;  and  our  Lord  wrote  on  the  ground, 
John  viii,  6. 

The  bark  of  trees  has  been  used  in  all  countries  to  write 
upon.  The  word  book,  in  Latin  liber,  is  the  name  by  which 
the  inner  bark  of  trees  is  called  in  that  language.  In  Su- 
matra, bark  is  still  much  used  for  books :  the  North  Ame- 
rican Indians  used  it  for  picture  writing. 

Linen  was  used  in  former  times,  particularly  by  the 
Egyptians :  many  of  their  linen  books,  and  writings  upon 
linen,  remain  to  this  day.  They  are  frequently  found  in- 
side the  wrappers  of  the  mummies,  or  dead  bodies  of  per- 
sons who  died  a  long  time  ago,  which  have  been  preserved 
or  embalmed,  in  the  same  manner  as  the  bodies  of  Jacob 
and  Joseph.     See  Gen.  1,  2,  26. 

Skins  of  animals  were  used  long  before  people  had  found 
out  how  to  make  them  into  parcliment.  These  leather 
and  linen  books  were  in  the  form  of  long  rolls.  It  is  pro- 
bable that  the  book  of  the  law,  written  by  Moses,  and  given 
by  him  to  the  priests,  (Deut.  xxxi,  24,  etc.,)  was  of  linen 
or  leather ;  and  that  the  book  of  the  law  found  by  Hilkiah, 


MANNERS  AND   CUSTOMS. 


109 


(2  Cliron.  xxxiv,  14,)  was  so.  It  may  have  been  the  same 
book  that  was  written  by  Moses.  When  Dr.  Buchanan 
was  in  India,  he  found  a  very  old  copy  of  the  law,  written 
on  a  roll  of  leather  about  fifteen  feet  long.  Many  such 
rolls  exist,  some  more  than  a  hundred  feet  in  length.  It 
must  have  been  very  troublesome  to  read  in  such  a  book  or 
roll,  which  was  the  general  form  of  books  in  ancient  times. 
The  rolls  were  several  feet  long,  but  not  very  wide,  gene- 
rally about  twelve  or  fourteen  inches  ;  the  writing  was 
in  pages,  beginning  at  one  end  of  the  roll,  and  so  proceeding 
to  the  other.  The  ends  of  the  roll  were  often  fastened  upon 
sticks  ;  the  roll  was  opened  at  the  beginning  enough  to  allow 
of  a  page  or  two  being  read.  The  ancient  manuscripts 
w^ere  all  written  in  capital  letters,  and  without  divisions  of 
the  words,  so  that  the  roll,  when  first  opened,  looked  some- 
thing like  this : — 

NOWWHENJE  GBEHOLDTHE  HATISBORNKI  OWOI18HIPHI 

SUSWASBORN  KECAMEWISE  NGOFTHEJEW  MWHENHERO 

INBETIILEHE  MENFRGMTH  SFORWEHAVE  DTHEKINGHA 

MOFJUDEAIN  EEASTTOJERU  SEENHISSTARI  DHEARDTHES 

THEDAfSOFH  SALEMSATING  NTHEEASTAN  ETHINGSHEW 

ERODTHEKIN  WHEREISHET  DARECOMET  ASTROUBLED 

Matt,  ii,  1-3. 

The  part  first  opened,  when  read,  was  rolled  up  again, 
and  more  was  opened :  thus  the  whole  book  could  be  read 
without  the  difficulty  which  there  must  have  been  if  the 
lines  had  gone  all  along,  from  one  end  to  the  other,  so  as  to 
require  the  whole  roll  to  be  opened  at  once.  Sometimes 
both  sides  of  the  roll  were  written  upon,  Ezek.  ii,  10. 
Hartley  describes  a  roll  written  on  both  sides,  so  that  when 
the  reader  had  read  the  page  next  the  inner  stick,  he  turned 
the  parchment  over  and  read  the  other  side.  This  was 
written  within  and  without. 

The  roll  described,  Zech.  v,  1-3,  was  about  thirty-five 
feet  long.  The  description.  Rev.  vi,  14,  strikingly  repre- 
sents the  removal  of  a  roll  when  rolled  up.  That  seen  by 
the  evangelist  seems  to  have  had  seven  leaves  or  skins,  with 
a  pictorial  representation  on  each :  the  whole  being  rolled 
up,  the  edge  of  each  could  be  sealed  separately,  so  as  to 
allow  of  their  being  opened  one  after  the  other. 

They  were  laid  up  in  repositories  especially  for  the  pur- 
pose, as  the  house  of  the  rolls,  Ezra  vi,  1. 


110  JEWISH  NATION. 

The  rolls,  or  books  rolled  up,  are  often  mentioned  or 
alluded  to  in  the  Bible,  Ezra  vi,  2 ;  Isa.  viii,  1 ;  xxxiv,  4 ; 
Jer.  xxxvi,  2  ;  Ezek.  ii,  9 ;  Rev.  vi,  14.  The  scribes,  or  per- 
sons employed  in  writing,  were  considered  persons  of  im- 
portance. From  Ezek.  ix,  2,  3,  11,  it  appears  that  they 
wore  their  ink-bottles,  or  ink-horns,  at  their  girdles.  The 
prophecy  of  Jeremiah,  sent  to  Jehoiakim,  was  written  by 
Baruch,  with  ink,  in  the  roll  of  a  book  :  it  is  plain  that  this 
book  was  of  some  soft  substance,  as  the  king  was  able  to 
cut  it  to  pieces  with  a  penknife,  before  he  cast  it  into  the 
fire,  Jer.  xxxvi,  23. 

The  word  "  scribe"  requires  explanation.  It  is  used  in  the 
Bible  for  a  secretary  or  clerk.  These  were  persons  of  im- 
portance then,  as  in  Europe  during  the  Middle  Ages,  when 
but  few  persons  could  write.     Such  were  those  mentioned. 

Such  an  officer  would  keep  the  records  mentioned  Est. 
vi,  1-3. 

A  scribe,  or  secretary,  also  was  an  officer  of  considerable 
importance,  having  duties  of  moment  in  his  charge :  these 
were  of  different  iHnds,  as  the  scribe  of  the  host,  or  muster- 
master  of  the  army,  2  Kings  xxv,  19.  Such  a  list  of  names, 
kept  by  some  official  person,  seems  to  illustrate  the  book 
of  life,  Phil,  iv,  3  ;  Rev.  iii,  5 ;  xx,  12  ;  xxi,  27. 

The  scribes  in  the  New  Testament  were  doctors  or  learn- 
ed men,  skilled  in  the  law :  their  business  was  to  interpret 
it;  but,  as  our  blessed  Lord  said,  they  oftener  made  it  void 
by  their  traditions.  Matt,  xxiii,  2. 

In  Persia,  at  the  present  day,  the  meerzas,  or  scribes,  are 
of  importance.  Travelers  state  that  the  higher  classes 
employ  them  through  indolence,  instead  of  writing  letters 
themselves  ;  and  the  lower  classes  cannot  write.  Lane  de- 
scribed them  in  Egypt  as  sitting  in  the  street,  and  writing 
for  those  who  came  to  them. 

Parchment  is  made  of  the  skins  of  goats,  sheep,  or  calves, 
prepared  with  care.  It  was  known  to  the  Jews,  and  being 
a  later  invention,  and  more  valuable  than  skins  of  leather, 
was  used  for  writings  of  the  greatest  importance.  The 
apostle  Paul,  when  writing  to  Timothy,  desires  him  to  bring 
the  books  he  had  left  at  Troas,  but  "  especially  the  parch- 
ments," 2  Tim.  iv,  13.  The  value  and  scarcity  of  parch- 
ment was  so  great,  before  the  invention  of  paper,  that  the 
writing  was   frequently  effaced   from  the   rolls  or  books 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  Ill 

already  written,  and  other  works  more  desired  were  written 
instead.  Some  of  the  most  ancient  manuscripts  of  the  Bible 
now  known,  have  been  TOtten  over  in  this  manner ;  but  the 
first  writing  can  still  be  made  out,  though  with  difficulty. 
Another  substance  much  used  for  writing  upon,  was  a  kind 
of  paper  made  from  the  thin  skin  or  film  which  covers  a 
sort  of  bulrush  that  grows  in  Egypt,  and  is  called  papyrus, 
or  hiblos.  It  was  found  in  abundance  on  the  banks  of  the 
Nile  and  other  streams,  Isa.  xix,  V.  Among  these  reeds  or 
bulrushes  Moses  was  placed,  when  his  parents  dared  not  to 
keep  him  any  longer.  The  daughter  of  the  king  found  him 
there,  as  is  related  in  Exod.  ii,  5.  These  bulrushes  are  also 
mentioned  in  Isa.  xviii,  2.  This  sort  of  paper  was  much 
used  by  the  Romans  and  Greeks.  The  manuscripts  or  books 
found  in  Herculaneum — the  city  that  was  bmied  under  the 
ashes  and  lava  from  Mount  Vesuvius,  A.  D.  79,  and  which 
remained  unknown  until  about  a  hundred  years  ago — are  all 
written  on  this  sort  of  paper.  They  are  rolls,  or  long  slips, 
of  different  lengths,  about  twelve  inches  wide ;  but,  from  the 
heat  of  the  lava,  and  the  many  centuries  they  remained  un- 
touched, it  is  very  difficult  to  unroll  or  open  them. 

Different  sorts  of  paper  have  lately  been  made  of  bark 
of  trees,  cotton,  silk,  straw,  and  many  other  substances  ;  but 
these,  as  well  as  the  paper  now  made  of  linen  rags,  were 
imknown  to  the  ancient  Jews.  The  paper  mentioned 
2  John  12,  was  made  of  papyrus. 

The  ancients  wrote  upon  these  substances  with  ink.  The 
first  mention  of  ink  is  in  the  writing  of  the  prophecy  of 
Jeremiah  by  Baruch,  which  we  find  was  written  "  with  ink 
in  a  book,"  or  roll,  Jer.  xxxvi,  18.  The  prophet  Ezekiel 
speaks  of  a  writer's  ink-horn.  Lane  describes  the  literary 
men,  and  those  who  are  writers  by  profession,  in  Egypt,  as 
wearing  a  silver,  brass,  or  copper  case  at  their  girdle,  with 
a  receptacle  for  ink  and  pens.  Other  travelers  describe 
secretaries  wearing  this  for  a  mark  of  their  office.  The 
apostle  John  mentions  writing  with  ink  and  pen,  2  Jolm 
12;  3  John  13.  Also  the  Apostle  Paul,  2  Cor.  iii,  3; 
from  which  it  appears  that  the  Epistles  were  written 
with  ink  upon  paper  or  parchment.  The  pens  were  not 
of  quills,  like  ours,  but  of  reeds,  which  are  still  used 
by  Eastern  nations.  Persons  could  write  quicker  with 
them  than  with  the  iron  pens  or  bodkins,  which  engraved 


112  JEWISH  NATION. 

or  scratched  the  writing :  this  is  alluded  to,  Psa.  xlv,  1, 
where  the  pen  of  a  ready  writer  is  mentioned. 

There  were  pens  in  some  ink-horns  found  in  Herculaneum, 
but  they  were  merely  pointed  sticks,  like  skewers. 

Printing  was  not  discovered  till  about  the  year  1450  : 
before  that  time  books  were  but  few  in  number,  and  cost 
much  money.  Yet,  even  in  his  own  time,  Solomon  could 
say,  "  Of  making  many  books  there  is  no  end,"  Eccl.  xii,  12. 
How  much  more  is  this  the  case  now !  and  how  many  vain, 
trifling,  silly,  and  even  wicked  and  profane  books  there  are  ! 
Beware  of  bad  books.  We  read  (1  Cor.  xv,  33)  that  "  evil 
communications  corrupt  good  manners  ;"  and,  as  the  writer 
of  the  Book  of  Ecclesiasticus  has  well  observed,  as  "  a  man 
cannot  touch  pitch  without  being  defiled,"  be  assured  that 
you  cannot  read  bad  books  without  injury.  Flee  the  tempta- 
tion ;  and  if  a  bad  book  comes  into  your  possession,  as  soon 
as  you  are  aware  of  its  contents,  commit  it  to  the  flames. 
You  would  not  drink  a  cup  of  poison  because  it  was  offered 
to  you ;  why  then  take  a  bad  book  if  off'ered  to  you  ?  Re- 
member what  is  said  of  the  heavenly  Jerusalem :  "  There 
shall  in  no  wise  enter  into  it  anything  that  defileth,  neither 
whatsoever  worketh  abomination,  or  maketh  a  lie  ;  but  they 
which  are  written  in  the  Lamb's  book  of  life,"  Rev.  xxi,  27. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

POETRY,   MUSIC,   DANCING,   AND   PUBLIC  AMUSEMENTS. 

POETRY. 

The  Eastern  nations  have  always  been  remarkable  for  the 
excellence  of  their  poetry:  the  Jews,  in  particular,  were 
much  distinguished  in  this  respect.  Many  parts  of  the  Old 
Testament  are  in  verse.  Learned  men  have  examined  this 
subject  very  carefully,  and  have  said  much  about  the  dif- 
ferent sorts  of  verse  in  the  original  Hebrew.  They  espe- 
cially notice  the  manner  in  which  diff'erent  things  are  con- 
trasted with  each  other.  This  is  very  common  in  the  Hebrew 
poetry,  and  adds  much  to  the  impression  that  it  produces. 
Thus,  in  Luke  i,  63,  Mary  contrasts  the  mighty  with  them 
of  low  degree ;  and  the  hungry  being  filled  with  good  things. 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS. 


113 


l^;MHH|i|iy|i||,|,i|H'l/'iit^*^^t^^Urfi,^ 


while  those  who  were  rich  (in  their  own  opinion)  were  sent 
away  empty.  This  text  shows  very  strongly,  that  all  the 
blessings  we  enjoy  come  from  the  Lord. 

The  excellence  of  the  Hebrew  poetry  is  owing  to  its 
having  been  employed  on  religious  subjects.  When  persons 
who  understand  the  ancient  languages,  compare  the  poetical 
parts  of  the  Bible  with  the  best  poetry  of  nations  that  knew 
not  the  Lord,  they  are  struck  with  the  superior  excellence 
of  the  poetry  of  the  Bible.  This  arises  from  its  being  written 
about  those  things  which  relate  to  the  good  of  #iir  souls,  by 
men  inspired  or  taught  of  God. 

In  the  Bible  are  a  great  many  songs,  or  psalms,  which 
were  written  to  praise  the  Lord,  to  offer  thanks  for  mercies 
received,  or  to  implore  his  help  under  every  circumstance 


114  JEWISH  NATION. 

of  trial  and  distress  which  can  afflict  the  soul.  And,  as  the 
trials  of  believers  in  all  ages  are  the  same,  so  the  same  ex- 
pressions of  prayer  and  praise  will  be  found  suitable.  The 
Book  of  Psalms,  in  particular,  should  have  much  attention. 
The  excellent  psalms  written  by  Dr.  Watts,  as  well  as 
several  other  versions,  are  taken  from  the  Book  of  Psalms ; 
and  there  is  scarcely  a  hymn  of  any  value,  which  has  not 
some  thought  or  expression  from  the  Book  of  Psalms.  Nor 
is  this  to  be  wondered  at,  for  "  holy  men  of  God  spake  as 
'they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost,"  2  Pet.  i,  21 ;  and 
the  Book  of  Psalms,  as  well  as  the  rest  of  the  Holy  Scrip- 
tures, contains  the  word  of  God.  Doubtless,  the  Jews  had 
many  other  hymns,  or  divine  songs,  which  they  used  to  sing 
while  traveling,  or  while  engaged  in  labor ;  but  the  Psalms 
probably  were  most  used.  In  Matt,  xxvi,  30,  we  read  that 
after  the  last  supper,  and  before  our  Lord  went  to  the 
Garden  of  Gethsemane,  he  sung  a  hymn  with  his  disciples : 
this  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  113th  to  the  118th 
Psalms.  The  song  of  Moses  after  the  destruction  of  the 
Egyptians,  Exod.  xv ;  the  song  of  Deborah,  Judg.  v ;  of 
Hannah,  1  Sam.  ii :  all  are  beautiful  hymns  of  praise  and 
thanksgiving.  The  hymn,  Isa.  xii,  and  the  thanksgiving 
of  Hezekiah  on  his  recovery  from  sickness,  (Isa.  xxxviii,) 
are  of  the  same  description.  Others,  as  the  lamentation  of 
David  for  Jonathan  and  Saul,  (2  Sam.  i,)  are  of  a  mournful 
cast.  The  Lamentations  of  Jeremiah,  in  particular,  may  be 
noticed. 

The  constant  use  of  songs  among  the  Hebrews  and  other 
ancient  nations,  is  shown  in  many  parts  of  the  Bible.  Thus, 
Laban  found  fault  with  Jacob,  (Gen.  xxxi,  27,)  that  he  had 
departed  secretly,  so  that  he  could  not  send  him  away  with 
songs.  Modem  travelers  tell  us,  that  songs  are  frequently 
used  by  Arabs  and  others  at  the  present  day  on  the  hke 
occasions.  The  schools  of  the  prophets  are  mentioned  re- 
peatedly, as  1  Sam.  x,  5 ;  xix,  20 ;  2  Kings  ii,  3,  5.  In 
these  places  sacred  poetry  was  studied.  During  the  reign 
of  David  it  was  particularly  attended  to.  Barzillai  (2  Sam. 
xix,  35)  sjftaks  of  the  lang's  singing  men  and  women. 
From  1  Chron.  xxiii,  5,  we  learn  that  David  had  four  thou- 
sand Levites,  whose  employment  it  was  to  sing  hymns,  and 
to  perform  on  the  musical  instruments  used  in  pubhc  wor- 
ship;   and  in  chap,  xxv,  1,  we  read  of  two  hundred  and 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  115 

eiglity-eight,  the  sons  of  Asapli,  Heman,  and  Jeduthun,  who 
were  especially  "  instructed  in  the  songs  of  the  Lord  ;"  and 
John  in  vision  beheld  the  redeemed  thus  engaged  in  heaven, 
Rev.  V,  9  ;  xiv,  3  ;  xv,  3,  4.  Ezra  brought  back  two  hun- 
dred singing  men  and  women  from  the  captivity,  Ezra  ii,  65. 
The  hymn  of  Zacharias  is  given  Luke  i,  67.  He  was  em- 
ployed in  the  service  of  the  temple. 

The  apostle  told  the  Colossians  to  sing  with  grace  in  their 
hearts  to  the  Lord,  Col.  iii,  16 :  see  also  1  Cor.  xiv,  15. 

The  value  of  the  Book  of  Psalms  is  very  great.  The 
Psalms  cannot  be  too  strongly  recommended  to  the  atten- 
tion of  the  young.  Athanasius  said  that  they  contained  the 
whole  of  the  Scriptures ;  Luther  called  them  a  little  Bible  ; 
several  excellent  men  have  learned  the  whole  Psalter,  or 
Book  of  Psalms,  by  heart. 

The  value  of  these  precious  Psalms  is  much  increased  by 
the  great  use  made  of  them  by  our  blessed  Lord  himself, 
when  he  was  upon  earth.  Even  in  his  last  moments,  he 
expressed  himself  in  the  words  of  the  22d  and  the  31st 
Psalms :  he  expired  just  after  he  had  uttered  the  5th  verse 
of  the  latter.  He  in  whom  are  all  the  treasures  of  wisdom 
and  knowledge,  who  spake  as  never  man  spake — he  who  is 
one  with  the  Father — chose  to  conclude  his  life,  and  to 
breathe  out  his  soul  in  the  words  of  the  Psalmist.  Surely 
nothing  can  better  show  the  importance  of  making  the 
Psalms  a  constant  study.  More  texts  from  the  Book  of 
Psalms  are  quoted  by  our  Lord  and  his  apostles,  in  the  New 
Testament,  than  from  any  other  book  of  the  Old  Testament. 
The  texts  so  quoted  are  nearly  seventy,  besides  others  which 
are  evidently  referred  to. 

The  prophetic  books,  in  the  original  Hebrew,  are  mostly 
written  in  verse.  Several  passages  are  Divine  songs  or  psalms, 
as  Isa.  xii ;  Hab.  iii.  Most  of  the  prophecies  were  spoken 
in  verse.  The  language  of  Hebrew  poetry  was  more  suit- 
able than  prose  for  the  striking  and  impressive  descriptions 
of  the  sinfulness  of  the  Jews,  and  the  Divine  wrath  against 
sin,  as  well  as  for  the  beautiful  and  the  touching  declara- 
tions of  the  mercy  and  loving-kindness  of  the  Lord. 

In  the  East,  people  usually  read  in  a  sort  of  singing  tone, 
giving  an  emphasis  which  would  suit  with  their  mode  of 
writing.  Jowett  was  told  that  he  did  not  read,  but  talked. 
He  observes,  he  might  have  rephed,  You  do  not  read,  you 


116  JEWISH  NATION. 

chant.     People  thus  read  aloud,  as  the  treasurer  of  Can- 
dace,  Acts  viii,  30. 

The  earhest  instance  of  speaking  in  verse,  in  the  Bible,  is 
the  address  of  Lamech,  Gen.  iv,  23.  The  answer  of  Samuel 
to  Saul,  (1  Sam.  xv,  22,  23,)  is  of  the  same  description. 
The  blessing  of  Jacob,  (Gen.  xhx,)  and  the  song  of  Moses, 
(Deut.  xxxii,)  are  beautiful  instances  of  this  style.  The  pro- 
phecies of  Balaam  deserve  notice,  not  only  from  being  some 
of  the  earliest  we  find  in  the  Bible,  but  also  from  their  pe- 
culiar beauty,  Num.  xxiii,  and  xxiv.  In  Micah  vi,  6-8,  is 
a  striking  passage,  which  that  prophet  gives  as  the  inquiry 
of  the  king  of  Moab,  and  the  answer  of  Balaam ;  it  is  an 
important  inquiry : — 

Wherewith  shall  I  come  before  the  Lord? 

And  bow  myself  before  the  high  God? 

Shall  I  come  before  him  with  burnt-olferings  ; 

With  calves  of  a  year  old  ? 

Will  the  Lord  be  pleased  with  thousands  of  rams ; 

Or  with  ten  thousand  rivers  of  oil  ? 

Shall  I  give  my  first-born  for  my  transgression ; 

The  fruit  of  my  body  for  the  sin  of  my  soul  ? 

Each  second  line  repeats  and  enforces  the  idea  expressed 
in  the  preceding  one.  This  was  a  favorite  sort  of  poetry 
among  the  Jews. 

The  responsive  form  is  particularly  shown  in  Psalm 
cxxxvi,  where  the  singers  answered  each  other,  as  Miriam, 
Exod.  XV,  21.  It  is  often  a  recitative  and  chorus,  and  the 
Arabs  of  the  desert  thus  sing  and  answer  at  the  present 
day.  St.  Paul  speaks  of  singing  to  each  other  in  psalms 
and  hymns,  (Col.  iii,  16;  Eph.  v,  19,)  andf  when  merry, 
James  v,  13. 

Another  beautiful  specimen  of  ancient  Hebrew  poetry  is 
David's  lamentation  over  Saul  and  Jonathan.  It  has  been 
thus  translated,  dividing  the  lines  as  in  the  original : — 

O  Beauty  of  Israel ! 

Pierced  on  thine  own  mountains ! 

How  hava  the  mighty  fallen  ! 

Tell  it  not  in  Gath : 
Pubhsh  it  not  in  the  streets  of  Askelon ; 
Lest  the  daughters  of  the  Philistines  rejoice ! 
Lest  the  daughters  of  the  uncircumcised  extdt ! 

Ye  mountains  of  Gilboa, 
On  you  be  neither  dew  nor  rain, 
Nor  fields  affording  oblations  ; 
»  Since  there  hath  been  vilely  cast  away 

The  shield  of  the  mighty,  the  shield  of  Saul, 
The  armor  of  him  anointed  with  oil ! 

From  the  blood  of  warriors, 
From  the  fat  of  the  mighty, 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  117 

The  bow  of  Jonathan  was  not  held  back, 
Nor  did  the  sword  of  Saul  return  in  vain. 

Saul  and  Jonathan ! 
In  their  lives  were  united  in  mutual  love, 
And  in  their  death  they  were  not  separated. 
They  were  swifter  than  eagles  I 
They  were  stronger  than  hons  ! 

Ye  daugliters  of  Israel,  weep  over  Saul ! 
Who  clothed  you  in  delightful  scarlet, 
Who  put  golden  ornaments  on  your  apparel. 
How  are  the  mighty  fallen. 
In  the  midst  of  the  battle  ! 

O  Jonathan,  pierced  on  thine  own  mountains  ! 
I  am  in  distress  for  thee,  my  brother  Jonathan  ', 
Very  dear  to  nie  wast  tliou  : 
Thy  love  to  me  was  wonderful, 
Surpassing  the  love  of  women  ! 

How  have  the  mighty  fallen  ! 
And  the  weapons  of  war  perished. 

In  the  Paragraph  Bibles  the  poetical  parts  are  printed  in 
lines,  or  with  breaks,  so  as  to  show  the  parallelisms  for  which 
the  Hebrew  poetry  is  especially  remarkable.  Attention  to 
this  will  be  found  to  make  the  sense  of  many  passages  much 
more  clear,  and  adds  to  their  beauty. 


MUSIC  AND  DANCING. 

Music  was  used  in  the  worship  of  the  Jews,  and  at  their 
festivals.  On  occasions  of  rejoicing  or  thanksgiving  both 
music  and  dancing  were  customary.  Thus  Laban  spake  of 
his  desire  to  have  sent  Jacob  away  with  the  sound  of  the 
tabret  and  the  harp,  as  well  as  songs.  Gen.  xxxi,  27.  The 
prophet  Isaiah  mentions  that  the  harp  and  the  viol,  the 
tabret  and  the  pipe,  were  "in  their  feasts,"  Isa.  v,  12  ;  and 
in  the  parable  of  the  prodigal  son,  (Luke  xv,  25,)  is  men- 
tion of  music  and  dancing  on  a  private  occasion  of  joy. 
They  were  also  used  to  celebrate  victories  over  enemies,  as 
by  Jephthah's  daughter,  Judg.  xi,  34 ;  on  David's  victory 
over  Goliath,  1  Sam.  xviii,  6 ;  and  on  similar  events.  Mu- 
sic and  dancing  were  also  used  on  solemn  occasions  by  the 
women,  as  led  by  Miriam  after  the  deliverance  of  the  Israel- 
ites and  the  destruction  of  Pharaoh's  host,  Exod.  xv,  20,  21 ; 
on  the  removal  of  the  ark  by  David,  2  Sam.  vi,  14 ;  and 
generally  on  sacred  occasions :  see  Psa.  cxlix,  3.  But  we 
must  remember  that  music  and  dancing  were  also  used  for 
bad  purposes.  The  Israelites  danced  when  they  worshiped 
the  golden  calf,  Exod.  xxxii,  19.  The  Amalekites  thus  re- 
joiced after  plundering  Ziklag,  1  Sam.  xxx,  16.     Job  refers 


118  JEWISH   NATION. 

to  the  music  and  dancing  of  the  wicked,  Job  xxi,  11,  12; 
and  the  dancing  of  the  daughter  of  Herodias,  (Matt,  xiv,  6,) 
ended  in  the  murder  of  John  the  Baptist. 

As  to  music  we  may  remark  that  David  played  very 
well  upon  the  harp  ;  this  was  blessed  by  God  to  make  it 
the  means  of  calming  Saul,  when  the  evil  or  wicked  spirit 
troubled  him,  1  Sam.  xvi,  23.  The  prophets  also  called 
for  music  sometimes,  when  they  were  about  to  speak  the 
words  they  were  commanded,  as  Elisha,  2  Kings  iii,  15. 
See  also  1  Sam.  x,  5,  where  we  read  of  a  company  of 
prophets  with  a  psaltery,  and  a  tabret,  and  a  pipe,  and  a 
harp  before  them.  David  had  four  thousand  Levites,  who 
praised  the  Lord  with  instruments  which  he  caused  to  be 
made  expressly  for  that  purpose,  1  Ghron.  xxiii,  5.  These 
instruments  were  used  in  the  services  at  the  temple,  (see 
2  Chron.  v,  12  ;  vii,  6,)  and  are  mentioned  in  Psa.  cl,  3-5. 

The  principal  instruments  of  music  among  the  Jews 
were  harps,  lyres,  (a  sort  of  small  harp,  something  like  a 
violin,)  tambourines,  mouthpipes,  a  sort  of  bagpipe,  trum- 
pets, flutes,  cymbals,  triangles,  musical  bells,  and  others 
which  cannot  now  be  correctly  ascertained.  Many  are 
enumerated  as  used  in  the  worship  of  the  golden  image  set 
up  by  Nebuchadnezzar,  Dan.  iii  15  ;  but  they  are  not  all 
correctly  described  by  the  names  used  in  the  translation. 

Jubal  is  mentioned  (Gen.  iv,  21)  as  the  father,  or  first 
teacher,  of  all  such  as  handle  the  harp  and  organ. 

The  cymbal  is  mentioned  by  the  apostle,  1  Cor.  xiii,  1  ; 
the  sounding  brass  probably  means  a  sort  of  trumpet. 
The  organ  (Psa.  cl,  4)  was  formed  of  several  pipes  joined 
together,  like  what  are  called  pan  pipes.  Trumpets  are 
often  mentioned.  Moses  was  commanded  to  make  two  of 
silver,  which  were  used  to  call  the  people  together  in  the 
wilderness,  and  to  give  signals  for  their  marching.  Num. 
X,  1,  2.  These  are  supposed  to  have  been  straight,  with 
bell-mouths,  each  about  two  feet  long.  Two  such  trum- 
pets are  represented  on  the  triumphal  arch  of  Titus  at 
Rome,  where  there  is  a  sculpture  representing  the  table  of 
shew-bread,  candlestick,  and  other  sacred  articles  of  the 
Jews,  as  carried  in  his  triumphal  procession.  Joshua  was 
to  make  seven  trumpets  of  rams'  horns,  or  rather  of  metal 
bent  like  rams'  horns,  (Josh,  vi,  8,)  though  sometimes  such 
were  made  of  the  horns  of  animals. 


MANNERS  AND   CUSTOMS.  119 

It  is  remarkable  that  the  heathen  Romans  should  have 
given  representations  of  several  of  the  sacred  articles  of 
the  Jews,  and  that  these  should  have  been  preserved,  wliile 
many  other  arches  and  representations  commemorating  their 
victories  have  been  destroyed. 

When  music  is  used  properly,  it  solemnizes  the  mind ; 
but  it  is  often  much  abused  for  profane  and  wicked  pur- 
poses. This  should  make  us  very  careful  to  shun  trifling 
or  foolish  music,  while  there  appears  sufficient  waiTant  to 
authorize  us  to  use  it  for  good  purposes.  Like  wine,  and 
many  other  gifts  of  God,  it  is  too  often  misused;  and 
those  who  cultivate  this  talent  or  ability  should  earnestly 
pray  that  it  may  not  lead  them  into  temptation,  but  that 
they  may  use  it  only  for  the  glory  of  God,  and  in  such  a 
manner  as  his  word  permits.  They  should  be  particularly 
reminded  of  the  apostle's  declaration  respecting  singing, 
which  may  be  fully  apphed to  music :  "I  will  sing  with 
the  spirit,  and  I  will  sing  with  the  understanding  also," 
1  Cor.  xiv,  15. 

With  respect  to  dancing,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  say, 
that  what  is  now  called  dancing  is  very  different  from  that 
used  by  David  and  others.  The  dancing  mentioned  in  the 
Bible,  accompanying  music  on  solemn  occasions,  was  a 
grave,  regular  manner  of  moving,  or  a  measured  step. 
There  certainly  is  not  a  text  or  passage  in  the  Bible  which 
justifies  what  is  now  called  dancing.  The  dancing  of 
the  daughter  of  Herodias  was  probably  something  of  that 
sort,  and  its  evil  effects  are  recorded.  It  led  to  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  life  of  a  prophet,  which  tended  to  fill  up  the 
measure  of  iniquity  of  Herod  and  his  wicked  family.  There 
are  also  other  instances  in  the  Bible  where  dancing  ended 
badly. 

As  for  plays,  or,  as  they  are  called,  theatrical  amuse- 
ments, which  often  include  music  and  dancing,  it  cannot 
be  necessary  to  say  more,  than  that  no  real  Christian  will 
be  found  encouraging  such  abominations.  The  apostle 
Paul  expressly  mentions  revelings  and  such  like,  among  the 
works  of  the  flesh ;  and  says,  that  "  they  which  do  such 
things  shall  not  inherit  the  kingdom  of  God,"  Gal.  v,  21. 
The  apostle  Peter  also  condemns  revelings  as  being  con- 
trary to  the  will  of  God,  1  Pet.  iv,  3.  The  original  word 
used  in  both  these  places  is  komoi,  or  comedies,  and  plainly 


120  JEWISH  NATION. 

shows  that  what  are  called  plays  are  expressly  forbidden  in 
the  word  of  God. 


PUBLIC   AMUSEMENTS. 

The  ancients  had  many  public  amusements  besides  those 
already  noticed ;  but  most  of  them  were  very  barbarous — 
quite  contrary  to  the  spirit  of  Christianity.  The  public  com- 
bats with  wild  beasts  were  of  this  sort.  In  them  criminals 
condemned  to  death  were  exposed  to  fight  with  lions,  bears, 
wild  bulls,  and  other  savage  beasts  ;  and  the  people  took 
pleasure  in  seeing  their  fellow-creatures  torn  to  pieces  by 
these  fierce  animals !  The  apostle  Paul  compares  his  hav- 
ing to  withstand  his  enemies  at  Ephesus,  (Acts  xix,)  to  a 
combat  of  this  nature,  1  Cor.  xv,  32.  In  many  passages, 
wicked  men  are  spoken  of  as  wild  beasts.  Herod  is  com- 
pared to  a  fox,  Luke  xiii,  32.  Hypocrites  are  called  wolves 
in  sheep's  clothing,  Matt,  vii,  15.  See  also  Acts  xx,  29  ; 
Phil,  iii,  2. 

What  now  are  usually  described  as  public  amusements 
are  mentioned  among  the  Jews.  Among  the  heathens 
there  were  many,  and  to  them  there  are  some  references  in 
Scripture.  The  Olympic  Games  were  the  most  famous 
public  amusements.  On  those  occasions  people  came  from 
all  parts  of  the  world  to  see  the  contests,  which  were  prin- 
cipally racing  or  wrestling.  Only  persons  of  good  charac- 
ter, and  of  respectable  famihes,  were  allowed  to  contend  for 
the  prizes,  which  were  merely  crowns  of  leaves  and  palm 
Dranches ;  but  the  honor  of  being  a  conqueror  at  these 
contests  was  reckoned  very  great:  even  kings  sometimes 
engaged  in  the  games.  In  the  races,  the  runners  threw 
aside  all  their  garments,  and  on  an  appointed  signal  rushed 
forward,  in  the  sight  of  many  thousand  spectators.  The 
rewards  were  presented  to  their  view  at  the  end  of  the 
course,  which  was  kept  clear  from  every  obstruction.  This 
illustrates  that  beautiful  passage,  (Heb.  xii,  1-3,  12,  13,) 
"  Wherefore  seeing  we  also  are  compassed  about  with  so 
great  a  cloud  of  witnesses,  let  us  lay  aside  every  weight, 
and  the  sin  that  doth  so  easily  beset  us,  looking  imto 
Jesus,  the  Author  and  Finisher  of  our  faith."  The  word 
which  is  translated  "  beset,"  means  also  to  entangle;  as  long 
garaients,  such  as  were  then  worn,  might  entangle  and  throw 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS. 


121 


AN   ANCIENT    FOOT-RACE. 


down  the  runner  if  lie  did  not  throw  them  off.  This  is  re- 
corded as  having  happened  once,  and  afterwards  the  racers 
threw  aside  all  their  garments.  How  desirable  it  is  that  a 
Christian  should  throw  aside  and  be  freed  from  the  sins 
which  beset  or  entangle  him  in  his  Christian  course  ! 

St.  Paul,  in  another  place,  alludes  to  these  contests. 
"  Know  ye  not  that  they  which  run  in  a  race  run  all,  but 
one  receiveth  the  prize  ?  So  run  that  ye  may  obtain.  And 
every  man  that  striveth  for  the  mastery  is  temperate  in  all 
things. — Now  they  do  it  to  obtain  a  corruptible  crown ; 
but  we  an  incorruptible.  I  therefore  so  run,  not  as  un- 
certainly ;  so  fight  I  not  as  one  that  beateth  the  air  :  but  I 
keep  under  my  body,  and  bring  it  into  subjection :  lest  that 
by  any  means  when  I  have  preached  (the  gospel)  to  others, 
I  myself  should  be  a  castaway,"  1  Cor.  ix,  24-27. 

The  racers  and  others  who  contended  for  the  prizes,  fasted, 
or  lived  upon  a  particular  diet,  for  some  time  before  the  day 
of  the  contest :  the  apostle  strongly  urges  the  followers  of 
Christ  to  consider  the  pains  and  privations  which  the 
heathens  endured  for  a  poor,  fading,  worldly  honor.  He 
shows  how  much  more  in  earnest  they  should  be,  since 
a  reward  infinitely  greater  was  offered  to  them.  This  pas- 
sage is  in  one  of  St.  Paul's  epistles  to  the  inhabitants  of 
Corinth  :  the  games  to  which  the  apostle  alludes  were  cele- 
brated near  that  city.      The  words  of  the  apostle  have 

6 


122  JEWISH   NATION. 

often  been  recollected  by  Christian  travelers  when  in  that 
neighborhood.  Wilson,  the  missionary  in  Greece,  espe- 
cially noticed  this  when  passing  the  Isthmus  of  Corinth. 

The  same  circumstances  explain  two  other  beautiful 
passages  in  the  epistles  :  one  is,  (Phil,  iii,  13,  14,)  "  Forget- 
ting those  things  which  are  behind,  and  reaching  forth  unto 
those  things  which  are  before,  I  press  toward  the  mark  for 
the  prize  of  the  high  calling  of  God  in  Christ  Jesus."  The 
other,  (2  Tim.  iv,  V,  8,)  "  I  have  fought  a  good  fight,  I  have 
finished  my  course,  I  have  kept  the  faith :  henceforth, 
there  is  laid  up  for  me  a  crown  of  righteousness,  which  the 
Lord,  the  righteous  Judge,  shall  give  me  at  that  day  :  and 
not  to  me  only,  but  unto  all  them  also  that  love  his  appear- 
ing." Let  not  the  readers  suppose  that  the  apostle,  by  re- 
ferring to  the  games  and  customs  of  those  times,  meant  to 
encourage  or  approve  of  Christians  engaging  therein.  And 
let  them  not  suppose  that  the  games  and  races  practiced  at 
the  present  day  are  countenanced  thereby.  The  ancient 
games  were  conducted  with  much  order  and  solemnity  by 
the  heathens  ;  the  greatest  and  best  characters  among  them 
engaged  therein,  and  they  were  in  their  view  religious 
ceremonies.  But  we  live  in  a  better  day,  and  in  the  light 
of  the  gospel :  we  do  not  ofifer  such  things  for  worship, 
and  no  one  can  suppose  that  the  riotous  and  wicked  prac- 
tices so  prevalent  at  the  English  wakes  and  fairs,  are 
pleasing  to  God,  or  approved  by  his  word.  They  are 
"  the  revelings,  and  such  like,"  (Gal.  v,  21,)  of  which  the 
apostle  expressly  declares,  that  "  they  which  do  such  things 
shall  not  inherit  the  kingdom  of  God."  It  is  also  to  be 
remarked,  that  most  of  those  wakes  are  the  continuance  of 
heathen  revelings,  which  were  practiced  by  our  forefathers, 
when  Pagans,  many  centuries  ago  ;  for  when  the  Romish 
missionaries  were  sent  to  this  country  by  Pope  Gregory, 
about  the  year  600,  they  allowed  those  revels  to  be  con- 
tinued, that  they  might  the  more  easily  persuade  the  heathen 
Saxons,  who  then  ruled  the  greater  part  of  England,  to 
profess  themselves  Christians.  Let  us  earnestly  pray  for 
grace,  that  we  may  be  enabled  to  run  the  race  which  is  set 
before  us,  and  to  wrestle  with  the  corruptions  of  our  hearts, 
seeking  for  strength  from  the  Lord. 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS. 


123 


ARAB    SCHOLARS    WRlTlx\U   UX\    SAND. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

SCHOOLS  AND   EDUCATION. 

The  Jews  do  not  appear  to  have  had  regular  public  schools, 
either  boarding  or  day-schools,  nor  schools  hke  those  now 
established  by  our  missionaries.  The  schools  of  the  sons 
of  the  prophets,  if  they  are  to  be  called  schools,  were  very 
different.  The  way  of  life  of  the  ancient  Jews  was  labo- 
rious, and  that  constantly  ;  so  that  they  needed  the  help  of 
their  children,  and  brought  them  up  to  work  from  their 
childhood.  Thus  Gideon,  Saul,  David  and  his  brothers,  and 
Elisha,  all  engaged  at  an  early  age  in  the  labors  of  a  coun- 
try hfe.  In  the  cases  just  named,  as  well  as  those  of  Amos 
and  others,  God  chose  persons  engaged  in  the  duties  of 
their  callings,  to  perform  services  for  him. 

It  was  much  the  same  in  other  nations:  the  word  "school" 
is  originally  Greek,  and  signifies  leisure,  as  denoting  the 
place  where  people  met  who  had  no  particular  business  to 
do,  so  that  they  had  time  to  amuse  themselves.  There  are, 
however,  many  references  in  the  Bible  to  instruction  :  (Prov. 
i,  V,)  "  Fools  despise  wisdom  and  instruction  ;  a  wise  person 


124  JEWISH  NATION. 

will  hear,  and  will  increase  learning,"  verse  5  ;  and  that "  when 
wisdom  entereth  into  thine  heart,  and  knowledge  is  pleasant 
unto  thy  soul,  discretion  shall  preserve  thee,  and  understand- 
ing shall  keep  thee  to  deliver  thee  from  evil,"  Prov.  ii,  10-12. 
And  let  it  always  be  remembered,  that  "  the  fear  of  the  Lord 
is  the  beginning  of  knowledge,"  see  Prov.  i,  T.  No  learning 
can  be  really  good,  if  contrary  to  God's  word.  The  learning 
of  the  Jewish  children,  therefore,  chiefly  depended  upon  the 
instruction  they  received  from  their  parents,  whom  they 
accompanied  as  they  went  about  their  employments. 

Even  king  Solomon  speaks  of  having  been  taught  by  his 
father,  and  tells  us,  in  the  Book  of  Proverbs,  what  that  in- 
struction was  :  see  Prov.  iv,  4-9.  If  king  Da\dd,  amidst  his 
wars  and  the  cares  of  government,  could  instruct  his  son, 
his  custom  should  remind  parents  amongst  us  of  their  duty, 
and  encourage  them  to  undertake  it :  children  also  should 
be  more  attentive  than  in  general  they  are,  to  the  instruc- 
tions of  those  parents  who  give  up  many  pleasures  and  pur- 
suits to  teach  them.  Especially  let  them  remember  what 
David  said,  "  And  thou,  Solomon  my  son,  know  thou  the 
God  of  thy  father,  and  serve  him  with  a  perfect  heart  and 
with  a  willing  mind,"  1  Chron.  xxviii,  9. 

This  method  of  instruction  was  plainly  commanded  in 
the  law  of  Moses,  Deut.  vi,  6,  7  :  "  And  these  words,  which 
I  command  thee  this  day,  shall  be  in  thine  heart ;  and  thou 
shalt  teach  them  diligently  unto  thy  children."  This  in- 
struction was  given  rather  by  conversation  than  by  regular 
lessons  :  "  And  ye  shall  teach  them  your  children,  speak- 
ing of  them  when  thou  sittest  in  thine  house,  and  when 
thou  walkest  by  the  way,  when  thou  liest  down,  and  when 
thou  risest  up,"  Deut.  xi,  19.  Instruction  so  continually 
given  doubtless  produced  considerable  effect :  but,  alas ! 
men  forgot  the  words  of  the  Lord  in  this  as  in  other  things. 
It  is  too  much  the  same  in  our  day,  and  we  should  be  very 
thankful  that  there  are  persons  who  come  forward  to  give 
this  instruction,  for  "  that  the  soul  be  without  knowledge 
it  is  not  good,"  Prov.  xix,  2. 

Thus  the  greater  part  of  the  Israelites  were  m||^e  ac- 
quainted with  whatever  was  necessary  for  them,  both  as  to 
general  knowledge  and  their  own  particular  occupations. 
There  were,  however,  some  who  applied  themselves  more 
particularly  to  study :  we  read  of  men   of  the  tribe  of 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  IM 

Issachar  who  **  had  understanding  of  the  times,"  1  Chron. 
xii,  32  ;  and  the  priests  and  Levites,  being  in  a  great  mea- 
sure provided  for,  had  more  time  for  study,  and  it  was 
required  of  them :  see  Mai.  ii.  The  Jews  relate  that  the 
men  of  the  tribe  of  Simeon  were  generally  employed  as 
schoolmasters.  On  this  account  they  were  dispersed  among 
the  other  tribes,  which  was  prophesied  respecting  them  by 
Jacob,  Gen.  xlix,  1. 

There  were  also  schools  of  the  prophets,  such  as  those 
which  Samuel  taught  at  Naioth,  1  Sam.  xix,  19,  20;  and 
at  Bethel,  where  Elijah,  and  afterwards  Elisha,  gave  in- 
structions :  but  these  were  not  so  much  for  children  as  for 
all  persons,  whatever  their  age  might  be,  who  desired  to 
know  divine  truths  more  fully  than  they  could  learn  them 
in  a  general  way.  From  2  Kings  vi,  it  appears  that  they 
labored,  and  partly  maintained  themselves. 

In  later  times,  the  public  teachers  became  more  like  our 
schoolmasters,  though  even  then  they  rather  resembled  the 
professors  and  teachers  in  the  universities.  The  scholars 
usually  addressed  their  instructors  by  the  title  of  Rabbi, 
which  means  great,  or  master.  This  was  often  applied  to 
our  Lord,  and  also  the  title  of  Rabboni,  (John  xx,  16,) 
which  signifies.  My  great  master.  We  are  told  that  in  the 
Jewish  schools  this  title  was  only  bestowed  upon  seven 
persons.  Teachers  were  also  sometimes  called  fathers, 
and  their  disciples  were  called  sons,  Matt,  xii,  27 ;  xxiii,  9. 
Paul  speaks  (Acts  xxii,  3)  of  having  been  brought  up  at 
the  feet  of  Gamaliel,  alluding  to  the  manner  in  which  scho- 
lars sat  at  their  master's  feet.  The  disciples  of  the  Phari- 
sees, (Matt,  xxii,  15,)  who  were  sent,  hoping  that  they 
might  "  entangle  Jesus  in  his  talk,"  or  hear  him  say  some 
words  that  they  could  misrepresent,  were  scholars  of  that 
sort,  and  evidently  must  have  been  young  men,  not  children. 


126  JEWISH  NATION. 

CHAPTER  XIV. 
M  A  R  R  I  A  a  E  S.— C  H I  L  D  R  E  N. 

MARRIAGES. 

Marriages  in  the  East  are  celebrated  with  much  pomp 
and  ceremony,  and  very  large  expense  is  often  incurred. 
The  pasha  of  Egypt  is  said  to  have  expended  five  hundred 
thousand  dollars  in  1845,  when  marrying  his  daughter. 

There  are  many  allusions  in  the  Bible  to  the  ceremonies 
attending  marriages.  The  union  itself  often  is  alluded  to 
as  illustrating  the  union  of  Christ,  as  our  Lord  and  Saviour, 
with  his  Church,  his  faithful  people  of  every  age  and  nation. 
The  book  called  Solomon's  Song,  or  Canticles,  is  wholly 
based  on  this.  Under  the  form  of  a  poem,  or  poems,  illus- 
trative of  the  marriage  ceremony,  or  marriage  union,  the 
imion  of  the  blessed  Redeemer  with  believers,  and  the  va- 
rious changes  in  the  spiritual  state  of  the  soul,  may  be 
plainly  traced.  The  reader  who  refers  to  Clarke's  or  Ben- 
son's Commentary  will  trace  these  analogies ;  and,  by  the 
explanations  there  given,  will  be  assisted  to  understand  this 
remarkable  book.  This  is  the  more  necessary ;  for  the  good 
men  who  translated  it,  three  hundred  years  ago,  knew  very 
little  about  Eastern  customs,  and  therefore  have,  in  some 
places,  mistaken  the  original ;  and  in  others  have  not 
so  plainly  shown  its  meaning  as  they  would  have  done 
if  they  had  possessed  the  advantages  now  enjoyed  from 
the  accounts  of  travelers.  See  also  Eph.  v,  23 ;  Rev. 
xxi,  2. 

The  most  decided  allusion  to  the  marriage  procession, 
however,  was  made  by  our  Lord,  to  show  the  evil  of  being 
negligent  in  the  concerns  of  the  soul.  It  is  in  the  parable 
of  the  Ten  Virgins,  Matt,  xxv,  1-12.  Ward  describes  a 
marriage  at  Serampore,  where  the  bridegroom  came  from 
a  distance :  after  waiting  some  hours,  his  arrival  was  an- 
nounced, at  near  midnight,  in  the  very  words  of  Scripture, 
"  Behold,  the  bridegroom  cometh  ;  go  ye  out  to  meet  him." 
All  the  persons  employed  then  lighted  their  lamps,  and  ran 
to  take  their  places  in  the  procession.  Some  had  lost  their 
lights,  and  were  unprepared ;  but  it  was  then  too  late  to 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  127 

seek  them :  the  procession  moved  forward,  and  after  re- 
maining a  short  time  at  the  entrance,  the  bridegroom  went 
into  the  house,  the  door  of  which  was  immediately  shut 
and  guarded."  Mr.  Ward  and  others  entreated  for  admis- 
sion, but  it  was  in  vain.  In  Luke  xii,  35,  37,  our  Lord 
also  spoke  of  the  men  watching  for  their  lord's  return  from 
the  wedding. 


MESH-ALS,  OR  LAMPS. 

The  lights  carried  in  bridal  processions,  called  massals, 
or  meshals,  are  formed  of  linen  rags,  forcibly  pressed  to- 
gether, and  put  in  a  vessel  of  copper,  upon  which  oil  is  from 
time  to  time  poured  from  a  bottle  :  "  the  vessels  with  the 
lamps,"  Matt,  xxv,  4.  Or  sometimes,  as  here  represented, 
they  are  frames  of  metal,  at  the  end  of  a  pole,  and  filled 
with  small  pieces  of  burning  wood.  Lane  describes  these 
as  used  in  Egypt. 

At  these  feasts  the  guests  are  sometimes  supplied  with 
robes  more  magnificent  than  their  own.  Matt,  xxii,  12. 

M'Cheyne  speaks  of  a  delay  at  a  Jewish  marriage,  from 
the  bridegroom  having  neglected  to  bring  a  bridal  orna- 
ment, her  friends  refusing  to  let  the  ceremony  go  forward 
without  it.     He  quotes  Jer.  xi,  32. 

Others  describe  the  palanquin  in  which  the  bridegroom 
is  carried  in  India :  probably  what  is  translated  Solomon's 
chariot  and  bed,  (Cant,  iii,  7,  9,)  was  a  sort  of  palanquin. 

In  many  Eastern  countries  the  husband  now  pays  a  sum 


128  JEWISH  NATION. 

of  money  as  a  sort  of  purchase  of  his  wife,  as  Hosea  iii,  2. 
The  contract  is  made  through  a  confidential  friend,  or 
agent,  as  Abraham's  steward.  Gen.  xxiv,  3.  Grant  de- 
scribes these  customs,  especially  among  the  Nestorians. 
Lane  describes  the  negotiations  in  Egypt  as  very  similar ; 
but  when  the  bride  is  of  rank,  her  wedding- presents,  jew- 
els, slaves,  and  attire,  amount  to  a  considerable  value. 
Buckingham  speaks  of  the  money  paid  for  a  wife  among 
the  Arabs,  as  varying  from  fifty  to  a  thousand  piastres,  ac- 
cording to  their  beauty  and  connections.  In  China,  lately, 
an  Englishman  was  asked  how  much  he  had  paid  for  his 
wife  ?  when  he  in  joke  replied,  two  thousand  dollars  ;  but 
was  soon  reminded  that  he  had  done  wrong  to  utter  a 
falsehood,  for  he  was  offered  five  thousand,  and  even  seven 
thousand  dollars  for  her.  Let  women  in  Christian  coun- 
tries be  thankful  that  they  are  not  thus  made  articles  of 
merchandise,  though  too  often  marriage  is  a  mercenary 
bargain. 

Herschell,  in  his  Sketch  of  the  Jews,  has  described 
the  ceremonies  attending  a  Jewish  marriage,  and  shows 
how  they  illustrate  Scripture.  First,  the  betrothment, 
the  solemn  engagement  formed  some  months  before-hand, 
(Matt,  i,  18-20,)  often  with  much  ceremony  and  pre- 
sents. Cant,  iii,  11.  The  night  before  the  marriage  cere- 
mony was  called  the  watch-night,  in  which  the  brides- 
maids and  others  watched  for  the  appearance  of  the  bride- 
groom, as  already  described  from  Matt.  xxv.  But  they 
do  not  meet  till  the  next  day :  the  bride  is  then  dressed 
in  her  most  splendid  attire,  with  much  ceremony,  Psa. 
xlv,  13-15;  Isa.  xlix,  18;  Ixi,  10;  Rev.  xix,  1,  8;  xxi, 
2 ;  and  a  veil  placed  over  her  head,  as  a  mark  of  subjec- 
tion. A  large  canopy,  supported  on  four  posts,  is  erected 
in  the  garden,  or  in  towns,  sometimes  in  the  street.  The 
bridegroom  places  himself  under  it,  and  the  bride,  closely 
veiled,  is  then  led  there.  The  Rabbi  then  reads  the 
contract  of  marriage,  and  gives  an  exhortation,  and  the 
bridegroom  places  a  ring  on  the  forefinger  of  the  left  hand 
of  the  bride.  They  then  return  to  the  house,  and  the 
marriage  feast  follows,  which  is  a  very  joyful  scene,  as 
described  John  ii,  and  to  which  many  guests  are  invited : 
it  lasted  for  several  days.  Matt,  ix,  15. 

Jowett  describes  the  feasting  as  continuing  for  several 


MANNEllS  AND   CUSTOMS.  129 

days,  as  that  of  Samson's  marriage,  Judg.xiv,  12.  Hartley 
describes  the  Armenian  brides  as  so  closely  veiled,  that  even 
now  such  deceptions  as  that  practiced  on  Jacob  occur,  (Gen. 
xxix,  25,)  on  one  side  or  the  other;  sometimes  there  are 
interested  attempts  on  both :  such  unions,  it  need  not  be 
said,  are  not  agreeable  to  the  injunction  to  marry  only  in  the 
Lord,  1  Cor.  vii,  40 ;  2  Cor.  vi,  14. 

The  husband  sometimes  still  gives  personal  services  to 
the  father,  as  Jacob  did,  Gen.  xxix,  18,  30;  and  it  is  to 
be  observed  that  the  service  in  this  case  was  after  the  mar- 
riage. 

At  weddings,  a  person  was  selected  to  be  especially  the 
friend  or  attendant  of  the  bridegroom.  This  is  alluded  to, 
John  iii,  29.  He  had  many  important  duties  to  perforai 
from  the  beginning  of  the  contract ;  and  after  the  marriage 
was  the  friend  of  both. 

Our  Lord  reproved  the  divorces  which  were  frequent 
among  the  Jews,  either  from  the  contracts  being  made  for 
a  limited  time,  (Hosea  iii,  3,)  a  custom  which  Lane  describes 
as  still  known  in  Egypt,  or  from  the  fickleness  of  the  parties 
and  their  unkind  feehngs :  this  is  reproved,  Mai.  ii,  14,  16 ; 
but  still  more  forcibly  by  our  Lord  himself,  who  told  them 
it  was  not  so  from  the  beginning. 

In  the  East,  the  birth  of  a  son  has  always  been  much 
rejoiced  at,  while  little  or  no  notice  is  taken  of  the  birth  of 
a  daughter.  Even  among  the  Jews  this  was  the  case,  as 
Jeremiah  powerfully  describes,  xx,  15.  Females  are  con- 
sidered as  inferiors,  and  much  less  cared  for. 

Morier  describes  the  feast  when  children  are  weaned,  like 
that  made  by  Abraham  on  the  weaning  of  Isaac,  Gen.  xxi,  8  ; 
also  the  bringers  up  of  children  to  whom  the  boys  are  com- 
mitted by  rich  fathers,  when  two  years  old ;  such  were  the 
bringers  up  of  the  children  of  Ahab,  2  Kings  x,  5. 

In  the  East  children  are  sometimes  carried  at  the  back,  in 
the  hyke,  but  often  sitting  on  the  shoulders,  (Isa.  xlix,  22,) 
or  astride  on  the  hip,  Isa.  Ixvi,  12.  Lane  describes  the 
Egyptian  mothers  thus  carrying  their  children,  even  when 
very  little.  They  soon  learn  to  hold  on  by  the  head  and 
neck,  when  thus  carried  in  walking,  or  even  riding. 

One  peculiarly  commendable  point  in  Eastern  children  is 
their  reverence  for  their  mother ;  so  one  way  of  showing 
violent  anger  against  other  persons  is  to  speak  reproachfully 
6* 


130  JEWISH  NATION. 

of  their  p^*eiits.     A  traveler's  servant,  seeing  his  master  in 
a  rage,  said,  "  Strike  me,  but  do  not  curse  my  mother." 


GHILDRKN. 

It  was  common  among  the  ancients  for  persons  to  adopt 
children,  either  when  they  had  none  of  their  own,  or  when 
there  was  something  particular  to  interest  them  for  the 
children  who  were  adopted.  Elie^er,  of  Damascus,  pro- 
bably had  been  thus  adopted  by  Abraham  before  he  had 
children  of  his  own,  Gen.  xv,  3.  This  is  common  at  the 
present  time  among  the  Indians,  particularly  in  North 
America.  Persons,  both  grown  up  and  children,  who  have 
been  taken  prisoners  in  their  wars  with  the  white  people, 
have  been  adopted  by  the  Indian  tribes,  and  have  hved 
many  years  among  them.  Jacob's  adoption  of  Ephraim 
and  Manasseh,  (Gen.  xlviii,  5.)  was  something  of  this  sort. 
It  is  still  more  fully  shown  in  the  c;^se  of  Moses,  who  was 
adopted  by  Pharaoh's  daugliter,  Exod.  ii,  10 ;  and  of  Esther, 
who  was  adopted  by  her  uncle,  Mordec^ni,  Esth.  ii,  7.  In 
these  cases  the  adopted  children  were  considered  as  though 
they  had  been  really  children  of  those  who  adopted  them, 
and  thus  became  subject  to  their  authority. 

The  two  instances  above  mentioned  deserve  notice: 
"  Moses,  when  he  was  come  to  years,  refused  to  be  called 
the  son  of  Pharaoh's  daughter ;  choosing  rather  to  suffer 
affliction  with  the  people  of  God,  than  to  enjoy  the  pleasures 
<rf  sin  for  a  season ;  esteeming  the  reproach  of  Christ  greater 
riches  than  the  treasures  in  Egypt :  for  he  had  respect  unto 
the  recompense  of  the  rewai-d,"  Heb.  xi,  24-26.  Esther 
was  strengthened  and  had  courage  given  to  her,  so  that  she 
was  enabled  to  declare  that  she  belonged  to  the  nation  of 
the  Jews,  jilthough  they  were  ordered  to  be  destroyed  ;  and 
thus  her  people  were  dehvered.  We  also  read,  that,  even 
after  she  had  become  queen,  she  still  "  did  the  command- 
ment of  Mordecai,  like  as  when  she  was  brought  up  with 
him,"  Esth.  ii,  20. 

Both  these  accounts  show  the  power  of  Divine  grace  in 
the  hearts  of  young  persons :  enabling  the  one  decidedly  to 
refuse  honors,  we^th,  and  the  earthly  advantages  of  being 
adopted  by  a  king's  daughter — perhaps  even  the  succes- 
sion to  the  throne  itself — when  these  thincfs  could  not  be 


MANlirEBS  ASD  CUSTOMS.  181 

enjoyed  without  acting  c<Hitrary  to  the  wOl  of  (lod,  and 
bcang  connected  with  wicked  people.  And  in  the  other  in- 
stance, a  young  perscm  who  had  heeaa.  raised  to  the  actual 
possession  fd  m&  greatest  advantages  this  worid  could  be- 
stow, was  ready  to  fcanego  ih@Di  Si,  and  life  itself,  ratho- 
than  displease  Otod  and  fixsake  his  people,  Esth.  iv,  16. 
These  are  useful  and  important  lessons. 

Hie  custom  cC  adoptim  is  preserred  among  the  Moham- 
medans to  the  present  day.  Wh«i  a  Turk  thus  adopts  a 
child,  it  is  passed  througli  the  shirt  of  its  new  father.  This 
reminds  of  Elijah  adopting  the  prophet  Elisha  as  his  sm  in 
the  faith,  by  throwing  his  mantle  orer  him,  1  Kings  ziz,  19. 
When  Elijah  was  islkexk  up  into  heaTen,  Elisha  called  after 
him,  ''^My  father,  my  father;*'  and,  having  caught  his 
mantle,  proceeded  to  fulfill  the  duties  peifonned  by  his 
spiritual  father,  (2  Kings  n,)  by  succeeding  to  las  office. 

Th^e  are  seToal  texts  in  the  Kew  Testament,  (as  Rom. 
xm,  14 ;  GaL  m,  27 ;  Eph.  ir.  24 ;  CoL  iii,  10,)  m  which  die 
i^»ostle  speaks  of  belieTers  in  Chiist  haTing  '*  put  on  the 
new  man,"  which  may  refer  to  this  custom  of  tiie  manner 
of  adoption  as  sons.  But  St.  Paul  speaks  still  more  plainly, 
in  Rom.  Tm,  of  the  change  thus  efifected  in  the  believer. 
He  thoe  shows  the  ofal^ttiqn  upon  all  m&k  who  are  made 
partakers  of  sahFation  through  Cluist^  to  forsake  their  ftxmer 
evil  course,  and  to  lire  accordii^  to  the  SjHiit  ci  Chiist: 
<*  For  as  many  as  are  led  by  the  SjHiit  oi  God,  they  are  the 
sons  oi  God.  For  ye  hare  not  reodred  the  spirit  a(  haad- 
a^"  (or  sfatToy)  ** again  to  fear;  but  ye  have  reoeired  the 
l^iiit  of  adoption,  whoeby  we  cry,  Abba,  Father.  The 
^writ  itself  beareth  witness  with  our  spirit^  that  we  are  the 
childrai  of  God :  and  if  childnai,  then  bars;  bars  of  God, 
and  j<Mnt-h€irs  with  Chiist:  if  so  be  that  we  suffer  with 
him,  that  we  may  be  also  glorified  together,"  Toses  14r-17. 
Also  GaLi|^4,  5,tiiat«wfae&thefannessofttietimewa5 
oome,  God%Lt  fnth  his  Son, — ^that  we  might  receive  the 
adoptioa  of  sons." 

These  passages  are  explained  by  refioiii^  to  the  cnstoBBs 
rdalii^  to  adoption,  and  show  most  fuOy  tiie  great  privi- 
leges of  bdong^  to  Chist 


132  JEWISH   NATION. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

PHYSICIANS — MEDICINES — CUSTOMS  RELATIVE    TO    THE 
DEAD — FUNERALS. 

PHYSICIAl^S   AND  MEDICINE. 

The  first  mention  of  physicians  in  the  Bible,  is  Gen.  1,  2. 
Joseph  commanded  the  physicians  to  embalm  his  father ; 
that  is,  to  wrap  up  the  dead  body  with  spices  and  medical 
preparations,  to  prevent  it  from  decaying  in  the  natural 
manner.  This  was  in  Egypt,  and  the  physicians  were 
Egyptians.  From  the  simple,  plain,  and  healthy  manner  in 
which  the  patriarchs  lived,  it  is  probable  that  they  had  not 
much  occasion  for  medicine. 

Even  in  the  later  times  of  the  Jews,  they  do  not  seem 
to  have  known  much  of  what  is  called  the  medical  art. 
Their  medicines  were  chiefly  outward  applications.  Their 
knowledge  probably  did  not  extend  far  beyond  binding  up 
a  broken  limb,  or  healing  a  woimd.  As  for  other  diseases, 
they  appear  to  have  regarded  them  as  immediate  effects  of 
the  anger  of  God.  Job's  friends  thought  so,  Job.  v,  17, 18. 
Good  people  generally  consulted  the  prophets  or  other  min- 
isters of  God  ;  while  wicked  men  consulted  idolatrous  priests, 
or  pretended  magicians  or  sorcerers  :  the  heathen  nations 
do  so  still.  When  king  Asa  had  the  gout,  and  trusted  to 
his  physicians  for  a  cure,  without  seeking  God's  blessing  on 
the  means  used,  we  are  reminded  that  this  was  wrong, 
2  Chron.  xvi,  12.  When  Jeroboam's  son  was  ill,  he  sent 
his  wife  to  the  prophet  Ahijah,  to  inquire  respecting  the 
event  of  his  illness,  1  Kings  xiv.  Hezekiah,  when  almost 
at  the  point  of  death,  was  recovered  by  means  directed  by 
Isaiah,  2  Kings,  xx,  V.  For  the  leprosy,  in  {j|rticular,  no 
medicine  seems  to  have  been  used.  It  is  generally  thought 
to  have  been  considered  as  an  especial  mark  of  Divine  dis- 
pleasure ;  the  priests  were  directed  particularly  to  watch 
the  progress  of  the  disease,  and  to  keep  all  persons  afflicted 
with  it  by  themselves.  Naaman  came  to  consult  Elisha  for 
a  cure  of  his  leprosy  ;  but  the  prophet  would  not  even  see 
him,  thus  showing  that  his  cure  was  to  proceed  wholly 
from  God,  2  Kings  v,  10.    When  Benhadad,  king  of  Syria, 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  133 

was  dangerously  ill,  he  also  sent  to  Elisha,  2  Kings  viii,  T,  8. 
Ahaziah,  king  of  Israel,  who  was  a  wicked  man,  sent  to 
the  idol  Baalzebub,  at  Ekron,  to  ask  of  the  priest  respect- 
ing his  illness  ;  2  Kings  i,  3.  But  he  was  solemnly  warned 
of  the  folly  and  wickedness  of  turning  from  the  Lord  to  idols. 

Jeremiah  inquires,  "  Is  there  no  balm  in  Gilead  ?  is  there 
no  physician  there  ?  why  then  is  not  the  health  of  the 
daughter  of  my  people  recovered  ?"  Jer.  viii,  22  ;  see  also 
xlvi,  11.  This  shows  that  there  were  physicians  and  medi- 
cines, although  the  words  point  out  the  great  Physician  of 
souls,  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  who  alone  can  heal  our 
souls,  which  are  full  of  evil,  as  the  body  of  a  sick  person  is 
full  of  disease.  Our  Lord  spoke  thus  of  himself  when  he 
said,  "  They  that  be  whole  need  not  a  physician,  but  they 
that  are  sick,"  Matt,  ix,  12.  He  thus  reproved  those  who 
fancied  themselves  free  from  sin,  and  therefore  despised  his 
salvation,  just  as  sick  people  sometimes  think  that  they  are 
well.  But  our  souls  are  full  of  disease,  as  the  prophet 
Isaiah  says,  Isa.  i,  6  ;  let  all  beware  of  acting  like  the  Pha- 
risees, or  the  people  of  Laodicea,  Rev.  iii,  17  ;  and  reject 
not  this  great  salvation,  which  is  so  fully  and  so  freely 
offered  to  them. 

The  woman  healed  by  our  Lord,  (see  Mark  v,  56,)  "  had 
suffered  many  things  of  many  physicians."  St.  Luke  the 
evangelist,  who  wrote  one  of  the  Gospels  and  the  Acts,  was 
a  physician,  Col.  iv,  14.  As  for  medicine,  Prov.  xvii,  22 
says,  that  "  a  meriy  heart  doeth  good  like  a  medicine." 
This  of  course  does  not  mean  foohsh  merriment ;  but  a 
cheerful  disposition  often  adds  to  health  and  strength.  The 
balm  already  mentioned  was  a  healing  balsam,  or  gum, 
highly  valued  :  the  best  were  found  in  Gilead.  The  mer- 
chants to  whom  Joseph  was  sold  were  carrying  this  balm  to 
Egypt.  Jacob  sent  some  as  a  present  to  the  ruler  of  Egypt, 
Gen.  xxxvii,  25 ;  xliii,  11. 

Some  diseases  mentioned  in  the  Bible,  were  like  those 
with  which  people  are  afflicted  at  the  present  day.  All 
are  proofs  of  the  displeasure  of  God  against  sin.  It  was 
by  sin  that  death  entered  into  the  world,  Rom.  v,  12  ;  and 
diseases  are  the  means  whereby  the  life  of  man  is  usually 
shortened.  In  Exod.  xv,  26,  and  Deut.  vii,  15,  Moses  was 
commanded  to  tell  the  Israelites,  that  if  they  kept  the  law 
of  God,  he  would  put  none  of  the  evil  diseases  of  Egypt 


134  JEWISH  NATION. 

upon  them  ;  and  we  know  that  the  Lord  often  chastises  a 
nation  or  a  people  for  their  sins,  by  sending  them  diseases : 
this  is  mentioned  in  many  places  in  the  Scripture.  In  the 
New  Testament,  there  is  frequent  mention  of  persons  being 
possessed  with  devils.  Their  conduct,  in  some  respects, 
resembled  that  of  maniacs,  or  mad  people,  now ;  but  evi- 
dently it  was,  in  many  respects,  different,  and  was  pro- 
duced by  the  immediate  influence  of  evil  spirits.  Such 
cases,  however,  have  long  ceased  to  exist.  The  diseases  of 
the  body  also  frequently  refer  to  the  sickness  or  diseases  of 
the  soul  from  sin,  as  already  mentioned :  thus  many  such 
expressions  in  the  Psalms,  and  other  passages  in  Scripture, 
doubtless  refer  to  the  soul. 

CUSTOMS  RELATIVE  TO  THE  DEAD  AND  TO  FUNERALS. 

By  the  ceremonial  law  it  was  considered  that  a  dead 
body  polluted  for  seven  days  everything  that  touched  it, 
Num.  xix,  14-16.  For  this  reason,  the  priests,  who  had 
to  offer  sacrifices  every  day,  were  forbidden  to  assist  at 
funerals.  Even  the  bones  of  the  dead  had  the  same  effect. 
Josiah  caused  the  bones  of  the  idolatrous  priests  to  be 
burned  on  the  altars  of  their  false  gods,  2  Chron.  xxxiv,  5. 

When  a  person  was  dead,  his  nearest  relations  closed  his 
eyes.  This  was  promised  to  Jacob  when  he  was  to  go  down 
to  Egypt,  Gen.  xlvi,  4.  The  body  was  then  washed  (Acts 
ix,  3*7)  and  laid  out,  as  it  is  still  called. 

It  was  usual  to  make  great  lamentations  and  mourning 
for  the  dead.  Abraham  and  his  family  mourned  for  Sarah, 
Gen.  xxiii,  2  ;  and  the  funeral  of  Jacob  was  a  very  solemn 
one :  see  the  account  in  Gen.  1.  All  the  Israelites  "  mourned 
for  Aaron  thirty  days,"  (Num.  xx,  29,)  and  the  same  time 
for  Moses,  (Deut.  xxxiv,  8,)  although  then  on  the  point  of 
entering  Canaan.  The  mourning  for  Jacob  was  seventy 
days.  Gen.  1,  3.  Sir  John  Chardin  relates,  that,  in  the 
year  1676,  when  he  was  at  Ispahan,  in  Persia,  the  mistress 
of  the  next  house  died ;  the  moment  she  expired,  all  the 
family,  about  twenty-five  or  thirty  persons,  set  up  a  loud 
cry,  that  quite  startled  him.  He  says  these  cries  were  re- 
peated at  intervals  for  a  long  time  together ;  they  were 
continued  during  forty  days.  This  custom  led  to  the  em- 
ployment of  hired  mourners,  who  are  referred  to  in  several 


MANNERS  AND    CUSTOMS. 


135 


MOURNING    FOR  THE  DEAD. 

places  in  Scripture  :  see  Jer.  ix,  17,  18  ;  2  Chron.  xxxv,  25  ; 
Job  iii,  8 ;  Eccl.  xii,  5  ;  Amos  v,  16.  From  Matt,  ix,  23, 
we  learn  that  music  was  sometimes  used.  In  Egypt  the 
mourning  women  bring  tambourines,  which  they  beat,  cry- 
mg,  "  Alas  for  him !"  Others  play  on  tabors,  and  sing 
mournful  songs. 

The  manner  in  which  persons  cut  themselves  and  tore 
their  hair,  upon'  these  occasions,  is  referred  to,  Jer.  xvi,  6  ; 
vii,  29  ;  although  it  was  forbidden  in  the  law,  Lev.  xix,  28; 
Deut.  xiv,  1. 

Even  in  families  where  extensive  preparations  were  not 
made,  the  people  mourned  greatly.  This  led  to  much  vain 
ostentation  of  sorrow.  Many  of  the  Jews  had  come  to  Martha 
and  Mary,  to  lament  with  and  to  comfort  them,  John  xi,  19. 
This  was  after  the  funeral,  and  they  followed  Mary  to  the 
grave,  thinking  she  was  going  to  weep  there.  Thus  many 
persons  were  present  to  witness  the  miracle  of  raising  Laza- 
rus from  the  dead.  The  widow  of  Nain  also  was  accom- 
panied by  many  friends,  Luke  vii.  It  is  so  now.  Hartley 
describes  the  corpse  as  carried  openly  on  a  bier,  dressed 
with  much  care ;  thus  probably  the  only  son  of  the  widow 
was  earned  forth,  Luke  vii,  12-15.     The  ceremonial  of  the 


138  JEWISH  NATION. 

Greek  burial-service  closes  with  a  parting  kiss  given  to  the 
body  by  the  relatives  present. 

It  is  still  customary  among  the  Eastern  nations  for  rela- 
tives, particularly  females,  to  go  to  the  graves  of  their  de- 
ceased friends,  and  to  lament  over  them.  Fountain,  a  mis- 
sionary in  th*  East  Indies,  says,  "  One  morning  I  heard  a 
great  noise,  and  found  a  number  of  women  and  girls  as- 
sembled to  lament  over  the  grave  of  a  lad,  who  had  been 
killed  by  a  wild  buffalo  ten  days  before.  The  mother  sat 
on  the  earth  at  one  end  of  the  grave,  leaning  upon  it,  ex- 
claiming, '  0,  my  child !  O,  my  child  !'  At  the  other  end  of 
the  grave  sat  another  female,  expressing  her  grief  in  the  like 
manner."  Sitting  is  the  usual  posture  of  mourners  in  the 
East,  Isa,  iii,  26  ;  Matt,  xxvii,  61.  They  hang  down  their 
heads,  as  Lam.  ii,  10.  Le  Bruyn,  at  Ramah,  saw  a  number 
of  women  visit  the  burial-place,  and  make  a  great  lamenta- 
tion, Jer.  xxxi,  15. 

The  ancient  customs  of  mourning  may  be  noted  from  what 
Ezekiel  was  forbidden  to  do.  He  was  not  to  cry,  not  to  put 
off  his  head-dress,  not  to  go  barefoot,  not  to  cover  his  mouth, 
or  the  lower  part  of  his  face ;  this  latter  is  the  binding  up 
the  lower  jaw  like  that  of  a  dead  corpse ;  he  was  not  to  eat 
the  bread  of  men — the  feast  usually  prepared  for  the  fune- 
ral, Ezek.  xxiv,  17.  The  lamentations  usual  are  alluded  to, 
Jer.  xxii,  18. 

The  bodies  of  great  people  were  embalmed,  or  wrapped 
up  very  carefully  with  gums  and  spices,  before  they  were 
put  into  the  tomb.  Jacob  was  embalmed,  Gen.  1,  3.  The 
dead  body  was  laid  in  nitre  for  thirty  days,  and  afterwards 
forty  days  in  spices  and  gums.  This  was  done  by  physi- 
cians. Joseph  of  Arimathea  brought  a  quantity  of  spices, 
and  wrapped  the  body  of  Jesus  in  linen  cloths,  John  xx, 
39,  40.  The  two  companies  of  women  who  went  to  the 
sepulchre  on  the  morning  when  our  Lord  arose  from  the 
dead,  had  prepared  spices  for  the  same  purpose,  Luke 
xxiii,  56  ;  Mark  xvi,  1.  This  was  the  manner  of  the  Jews 
to  bury,  John  xix,  40.  Lazarus  also  was  bound  in  cloths, 
so  that  it  was  necessary  to  loose  him,  John  xi,  44.  Asa 
was  "  laid  in  the  bed,  which  was  filled  with  sweet  odors 
and  divers  kinds  of  spices,  prepared  by  the  apothecaries' 
art,"  2  Chron.  xvi,  14. 

Many  dead  bodies  are  still  found  in  Egypt  thus  wrapped 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  .  137 

up,  or  embalmed.  Countless  myriads  of  these  remain  in 
the  mummy-pits  and  excavations.  They  are  called  mum- 
mies, and  numbers  of  them  have  been  brought  to  this  coun- 
try. Not  more  than  two  hundred  years  ago,  the  mummies 
were  used  in  medicines  !  It  should  cause  us  solemn  thoughts 
to  look  at  one  of  the  bodies  thus  preserved,  so  that  even 
its  features  can  be  plainly  distinguished ;  and  to  think  it 
may,  perhaps,  be  the  body  of  one  of  those  ancient  Egyp- 
tians who  lived  when  the  Israelites  were  in  Egypt,  or  the 
remains  of  one  who  was  concerned  in  the  invasions  of  Ju- 
dea,  or  in  trading  with  the  Jews,  or  in  some  other  of  the 
events  recorded  in  the  Scriptures.  It  also  shows  how  fool- 
ish such  care  and  anxiety  for  the  dead  body  are.  After 
having  been  preserved  at  a  great  expense  for  ijiany  hun- 
dred, or  even,  perhaps,  some  thousand  years,  the  body  at 
last  is  brought  to  a  distant  land,  shown  for  some  time  as  a 
curiosity,  and  then  suffered  to  molder  away.  Thousands 
of  these  remains  have  been  broken  and  mutilated  for  the 
sake  of  the  ornaments  sometimes  found  with  them,  while 
many  are  used  for  fuel,  the  gums  and  resinous  substances 
with  which  they  were  embalmed  making  them  useful  to 
burn.  Of  how  much  greater  consequence  is  it  for  every 
one  to  care  for  the  soul !  Many  of  the  Egyptians  had  heard 
of  the  true  God,  and  yet  continued  to  worship  idols ;  nay, 
even  cats  and  monkeys,  or  leeks  and  onions !  Let  us  be- 
ware how  we  neglect  the  great  salvation  which  is  offered 
to  us! 

Among  the  Jews,  and  some  other  Eastern  nations,  it  was 
customary  to  bury  the  dead  bodies.  Abraham  and  Sarah, 
and  their  descendants,  were  buried :  a  particular  account  is 
given  of  Abraham's  purchasing  a  burial-place  for  his  family, 
Gen.  xxiii.  It  was  also  the  custom  in  the  days  of  our  Lord, 
as  we  find  from  the  account  of  Lazarus,  John  xi,  38.  The 
graves  sometimes  were  dug  in  the  earth,  as  that  of  Rachel, 
Gen.  XXXV,  19.  That  spot  is  now  marked  by  a  small  square 
building,  not  by  a  pillar.  Buckingham  describes  the  place 
as  wild  and  solitary.  Came  notices  that  the  Mohammedan 
graves  around  it  are  very  numerous.  The  Jews  are  not 
allowed  to  enter  this  tomb.  In  general,  the  places  of  in- 
terment were  caves,  or  places  cut  in  the  rocks,  as  the  tomb 
where  our  Lord  was  laid.  Matt,  xxvii,  60.  Such  tombs 
are  now  found  in  Judea,  Persia,  and  elsewhere.     There  are 


138    .  JEWISH  NATION. 

many  in  the  rocks  near  Jerusalem :  such  was  that  prepared 
by  Shebna,  Isa.  xxii,  16. 

Coffins,  or  boxes  to  hold  dead  bodies,  were  not  usual 
among  the  Jews.  The  body  was  wrapped  in  a  cloth,  and 
carried  upon  a  bier  to  the  tomb,  as  is  described  respecting 
the  widow's  son  at  Nain,  so  that  he  immediately  sat  up, 
when  commanded  by  Christ,  Luke  vii,  14,  15.  In  those 
climates,  when  the  body  was  not  embalmed,  it  was  buried 
very  soon  after  death.  See  the  account  of  Ananias  and 
Sapphira,  Acts  v,  5-10.  The  embalmed  bodies  in  Egypt 
were  usually  put  into  a  box  of  sycamore-wood,  generally 
painted  yellow,  with  figures  of  other  colors. 

In  the  accounts  of  the  funerals  of  the  Jewish  kings,  we 
sometimes,  read  of  burnings.  Several  other  nations  com- 
monly burned  dead  bodies ;  but  this  was  not  the  usual 
practice  among  the  Jews.  In  the  burnings  just  mentioned, 
the  clothes,  armor,  and  other  things  belonging  to  the  de- 
ceased were  burned,  as  well  as  some  parts  of  the  inside  of 
the  bodies,  which  were  removed  to  make  room  for  the 
spices.  At  the  death  of  Jehoram,  (2  Chron.  xxi,  19,)  the 
"  people  made  no  burning  for  him."  He  was  a  wicked  king, 
and  probably  was  accounted  unworthy  of  such  an  honor. 
The  bodies  of  Saul  and  his  sons  were  burned :  probably 
they  were  so  mangled,  or  in  such  a  state,  that  they  could 
not  be  embalmed.  Amos  vi,  10,  mentions  the  burning  of 
dead  bodies ;  but  that  appears  to  have  been  in  the  time  of 
pestilence,  when  it  was  impossible  to  attend  to  the  usual 
rites  of  interment. 

To  be  deprived  of  burial  was  thought  to  be  a  'great  dis- 
honor and  calamity :  see  Eccl.  vi,  3.  The  casting  forth  of 
Jehoiakim's  body,  (Jer.  xxii,  19,)  is  spoken  of  in  this  man- 
ner ;  and  in  Psalm  Ixxix,  the  dead  bodies  of  the  Israelites 
having  been  left  unburied,  is  mentioned  as  increasing  the 
calamities  of  the  nation.  The  bodies  of  criminals  were  cast 
out,  and  stones  heaped  over  them,  as  Achan,  Josh,  vii,  26 ; 
Absalom,  2  Sam.  xviii,  lY. 

The  ancients  did  not  follow  the  unwholesome  custom  of 
burying  their  dead  in  the  midst  of  towns  and  cities :  they 
buried  in  gardens,  as  the  tomb  where  our  Lord  was  laid, 
(John  xix,  41,)  in  fields,  or  in  caves,  mostly  in  unfrequented 
places.  Many  of  the  tombs  were  large,  and  contained 
several  recesses,  or  small  rooms,  which  sometimes  aflforded 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  139 

shelter  to  the  weary  traveler,  or  became  lurking-places  for 
robbers.  The  demoniac  at  Gadara,  (Mark  v,  2,)  dwelt 
among  the  tombs.  These  buildings  often  covered  a  large 
space  of  ground.  The  tombs  sometimes  were  attached  to 
their  houses,  as  that  of  Samuel,  1  Sam.  xxv,  1 ;  Joab, 
1  Kings  ii,  34.  At  a  place  on  Lebanon,  Jowett  saw  such 
a  structure  for  the  family  of  the  host  in  a  garden,  like  a 
small  house  without  door  or  window  ;  but  usually  they  have 
the  latter. 

In  Egypt,  the  tombs  of  the  kings  were  very  magnificent 
and  beautiful.  Belzoni,  a  few  years  since,  by  digging  away 
some  rubbish  at  the  side  of  a  hill,  discovered  a  most  re- 
markable tomb,  containing  a  number  of  rooms  and  passages. 
The  walls  were  sculptured,  and  painted  with  beautiful  figures. 
Among  them  were  some  which,  from  their  countenances 
and  dress,  evidently  represented  Jews.  From  the  hiero- 
glyphic inscriptions  and  other  circumstances,  Belzoni  had 
no  doubt  but  that  it  was  the  tomb  of  Psammis,  a  king  of 
Egypt,  the  son  of  Necho,  2  Chron.  xxxv,  20  ;  or  that  it  was 
erected  by  Psammis  for  the  remains  of  his  father  Necho, 
who  conquered  Judea,  in  battle  with  whom  Josiah  was  slain. 
The  sarcophagus,  or  cofiin  of  alabaster,  was  brought  to  Eng- 
land, and  is  now  in  London ;  it  is  sculptured  with  several 
hundred  figures. 

Robinson  describes  Petra  and  its  beautiful  excavations 
and  structures,  remarking,  that  of  those  that  now  remain, 
most  were  for  the  dead. 

At  Rome,  Naples,  Thebes,  and  some  other  places,  there 
are  vast  excavations  underground,  wherein  dead  bodies  were 
interred.  These  are  called  catacombs,  and  the  spaces  and 
passages  are  so  numerous  and  intricate,  that  strangers  would 
be  lost  in  them  without  guides.  There  are  little  recesses 
on  the  sides,  as  described  Ezek.  xxxii,  23,  "in  the  sides  of 
the  pit."  The  mummy  pits  at  Goumou  have  been  described 
by  several  travelers.  They  are  so  intricate  that  it  is  danger- 
ous to  go  far  into  them.  The  half  savage  natives  who  in- 
habit the  entrances  have  broken  up  vast  numbers  of  the 
coffins,  and  destroyed  the  contents. 

In  some  sepulchres,  there  were  buildings  on  which  much 
expense  was  bestowed.  To  these  our  Lord  alludes,  when 
he  speaks  of  the  Pharisees  as  whited  sepulchres.  Matt, 
xxiii,  27.     They  were  usually  whitened  every  year,  to  warn 


140  JEWISH   NATION. 

passengers  not  to  approach  so  as  to  be  defiled.  Sometimes 
titles  or  inscriptions  were  placed  upon  them :  see  2  Kings 
xxiii,  17:  while  the  graves  of  the  poorer  people  were  with- 
out distinction ;  so  that,  as  our  Lord  said,  "  men  that  walk 
over  them  are  not  aware  of  them,"  Luke  xi,  44.  The  Jews 
erected  sumptuous  monuments  for  those  whom  they  despised 
or  neglected  when  alive,  (Luke  xi,  48,)  which  is  too  often 
the  case  amongst  us.  Shaw  particularly  notices  the  bury- 
ing-grounds  in  the  East,  with  places  allotted  to  families,  and 
grave-stones  not  unlike  our  own,  but  often  ornamented  and 
beautified. 


ROCK-TOMB  IN  THE  SIDES  OF  THE  VALLEY  OF  JEHOSHAPHAT. 

This  represents  a  rock-tomb  in  the  "  sides  "  of  the  valley 
of  Jehoshaphat.  They  usually  have  an  ante  or  entrance 
room,  with  side  chambers.  Came  says  travelers  often  rest 
in  them. 

After  the  burial,  there  was  usually  a  feast :  this  probably 
is  alluded  to,  2  Sam.  iii,  35 ;  Jer.  xvi,  7,  8  ;  and  Hosea  ix,  4. 
It  is  the  custom  among  many  nations  now,  even  among  the 
Greenlanders ;  where  the  property  left  for  a  poor  widow  is 
often  consumed  in  this  manner.  The  feastings  at  funerals, 
so  common  in  Ireland,  and  called  wakes,  are  similar. 

Moummg,  as  to  apparel,  (2  Sam.  xiv,  2,)  was  not  a  black 
dress,  as  in  Europe,  or  the  wearing  of  any  particular  color, 
but  was  shown  by  ragged  and  neglected  clothing ;  it  did 
not  last  for  so  long  a  time  as  is  customary  amongst  us. 


MANNERS  AND  CUSTOMS.  141 

It  was  usual  to  make  elegies  or  mournful  songs  on  per- 
sons of  rank,  particularly  when  there  were  any  especial  rea- 
sons for  lamenting.  Jeremiah  wrote  a  book  of  Lamentations 
for  Josiah,  (see  2  Chron.  xxxv,  25,)  but  it  has  not  been  pre- 
served. The  Book  of  Lamentations,  at  the  end  of  the  pro- 
phecy of  Jeremiah,  was  written  upon  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem.  The  lamentation,  or  elegy,  composed  by  David, 
on  the  death  of  Saul  and  Jonathan,  is  in  2  Sam.  i,  17-27. 
But  the  Jews  and  patriarchs  sorrowed  not  as  those  without 
hope.  They  believed  in  the  resurrection  from  the  dead, 
as  is  plainly  pointed  out  in  Job  xix,  25 ;  Hosea  xiii,  14 ;  and 
many  other  passages.  It  is  enough  to  refer  to  the  words 
of  our  Lord,  Luke  xx,  37,  38:  "Now  that  the  dead  are 
raised,  even  Moses  showed  at  the  bush,  when  he  calleth  the 
Lord  the  God  of  Abraham,  and  the  God  of  Isaac,  and  the 
God  of  Jacob.  For  he  is  not  a  God  of  the  dead,  but  of  the 
living ;  for  all  live  unto  him."  And  remember,  that  Christ 
is  "  risen  from  the  dead,  and  become  the  first-fruits  of  them 
that  slept.  For  since  by  man  came  death,  by  man  came 
also  the  resurrection  of  the  dead.  For  as  in  Adam  all  die, 
even  so  in  Christ  shall  all  be  made  alive,"  1  Cor.  xv,  20-22. 

The  reader  is  again  entreated  to  examine  such  of  the 
passages  referred  to  as  he  does  not  distinctly  recollect,  and, 
by  the  Divine  blessing,  some  benefit  may  be  derived  from 
these  pages.  In  reading  the  Bible,  or  any  works  relating 
to  it,  we  must  bear  in  mind  that  the  Scriptures  were  written 
for  our  instruction :  not  as  mere  matters  of  history,  but  for 
the  good  of  our  souls.  A  blessing  should  always  be  sought 
upon  our  studies ;  above  all,  upon  the  study  of  the  Holy 
Scriptures. 


142 


JEWISH  NATION. 


PART  II. 

THE  RITES  AND  WORSHIP  OF  THE  JEWS. 


ABEL  OFFERING  SACRIFICE. 


CHAPTER  I. 

THE  THREE  DISPENSATIONS — THE  MEANING  AND 
ORIGIN  OF  SACRIFICES. 

A  RITE  is  a  solemn  outward  act  of  worship.  By  worship- 
ing, is  meant  showing  honor  and  respect ;  and  by  rehgious 
worship,  is  meant  endeavoring  to  show  honor  and  respect 
to  the  Almighty  Being,  to  GOD,  who  made  the  earth  and 
all  things  therein,  and  to  whom  man  looks  with  the  hope 
and  desire  that  he  will  cause  his  never-dying  soul  to  be 
happy  forever.  The  Bible  is  the  word  of  God.  It  tells 
us  about  God.  It  tells  us  how  God  was  w^orshiped  in  for- 
mer times,  and  how  he  is  to  be  worshiped  now. 

Three  times,  or  periods,  are  particularly  and  separately 
mentioned  in  the  Bible,  called  dispensations,  in  each  of 


RITES   AND   WORSHIP.  143 

which  it  has  been  God's  will  that  he  should  be  worshiped 
in  a  different  manner  as  to  outward  rites.  The  first  is  the 
patriarchal  dispensation.  This  includes  the  period  from  the 
time  when  Adam  and  Eve  left  paradise,  till  the  law  was 
given  from  Mount  Sinai.  The  history  of  the  patriarchal 
dispensation  is  to  be  found  in  the  chapters  from  the  third 
of  Genesis  to  the  twentieth  of  Exodus.  The  second  is  the 
Mosaic  or  Levitical  dispensation.  The  account  of  this 
occupies  the  rest  of  the  Old  Testament,  and  also  includes 
the  history  of  the  Jews  till  the  coming  of  Christ.  The 
thkd  is  the  Christian  dispensation.  The  account  of  the  be- 
ginning and  early  progress  of  this  dispensation,  is  given  in 
the  New  Testament.  It  has  continued  till  the  present 
time  ;  nor  is  there  reason  to  suppose  that  there  will  be 
another  dispensation,  or  another  method  of  worship  ap- 
pointed, before  Christ  himself  comes  again  to  judge  the 
world.  With  respect  to  these  dispensations,  it  is  plain 
that  the  wisdom  of  God  directs  the  revelation  of  such 
truths,  and  the  giving  of  such  laws,  as  are  best  suited  from 
time  to  time  to  answer  his  merciful  designs. 

Any  one  who  has  read  the  Bible,  must  have  remarked 
that  the  principal  rite  of  Divine  worship,  under  the  first 
two  dispensations,  was  that  of  sacrifice.  Some  animal,  or 
some  production  of  the  earth,  was  offered  to  God  upon  an 
altar,  by  some  person  whose  duty  and  office  it  especially 
was  to  make  the  offering.  The  first  particular  account  re- 
corded of  an  offering,  or  sacrifice,  is  in  Gen.  iv.  When  the 
offering  was  only  placed  upon  the  altar  it  was  called  an 
oblation.  In  a  sacrifice,  properly  so  called,  the  thing  offered 
was  destroyed,  or  something  done  to  it  so  as  quite  to  change 
its  state.  In  every  part  of  the  Bible,  we  find  frequent  men- 
tion of  the  sacrifices,  and  of  the  rites  and  ceremonies  with 
which  they  were  offered.  The  Book  of  Psalms  and  the 
writings  of  the  prophets  abound  with  allusions  to  sacrifices, 
while  the  historical  and  narrative  parts  of  Scripture  relate 
instances  of  them ;  and  the  books  of  Moses  contain  full 
directions  about  the  manner  in  which  they  were  to  be 
offered  under  the  second,  or  Levitical  dispensation.  There 
are  not  such  full  particulars  as  to  the  sacrifices  of  the 
patriarchs;  but  enough  is  said  concerning  them  in  the 
Book  of  Genesis,  and  in  some  other  places,  to  give  suffi- 
cient information  both  as  to  their  origin  and  their  object. 


144  JEWISH  NATION. 

They  were  memorials  of  the  sin  of  our  first  parents,  and  of 
the  way  of  mercy  provided  for  Adam  and  Eve,  and  their 
descendants.  It  is  probable  that  these  sacrifices  were  whole 
burnt-offerings,  and  that  there  seldom  were  any  others  till 
the  giving  of  the  law  by  Moses. 

The  sacrifices  mentioned  in  the  Bible  were  generally 
made  by  taking  beasts  or  birds  of  some  particular  kinds, 
depriving  them  of  life  in  a  solemn  manner,  and  then  burn- 
ing their  bodies  on  a  heap  of  earth  or  stones,  called  an 
altar.  As  the  sacrifices  are  mentioned  very  often,  and  evi- 
dently were  matters  of  great  importance,  we  will  here  in- 
quire what  was  meant  by  them,  and  what  first  gave  rise  to 
them  ?  Without  stating  the  different  opinions  which  have 
been  given  upon  the  subject,  that  which  appears  the  only 
correct  one  may  at  once  be  mentioned,  and  given  in  the 
words  of  Archbishop  Magee.  He  says,  *'  It  requires  but 
very  little  acquaintance  with  Scripture,  to  know  that  it 
everywhere  teaches  us  that  man,  by  disobedience,  is  fallen 
under  the  displeasure  of  his  Maker ;  that  to  be  reconciled 
to  his  favor,  and  restored  so  as  to  be  able  to  obey  him  in  a 
manner  he  would  accept,  a  Redeemer  was  appointed  ;  and 
that  this  Redeemer  laid  down  his  life  to  procure  forgiveness 
and  acceptance  for  repentant  sinners.  The  surrender  of 
life  has  been  called,  by  the  sacred  writers,  a  sacrifice ;  and 
the  end  attained  by  it,  expiation  or  atonement."  From 
several  texts,  particularly  Heb.  x,  1,  12,  and  ix,  9-14,  it 
appears  that  this  sacrifice,  or  death  of  Christ,  was  the  real 
or  proper  sacrifice  to  which  the  sacrifices  directed  by  the 
law  of  Moses  alluded,  or  of  which  they  were,  as  it  is  called, 
types  and  shadows.  Since  this  was  so  clearly  the  case  as  to 
all  sacrifices  under  the  second  dispensation,  we  are  war- 
ranted in  believing  the  rite  to  have  been  ordained  by  God 
also  under  the  first,  or  patriarchal  dispensation,  as  a  type  of 
that  ONE  SACRIFICE  wMch  was  alluded  to,  or  pointed  to,  by 
all  the  other  sacrifices. 

That  sacrifices  must  have  been  first  appointed  by  God's 
express  command,  appears  from  their  nature  and*  design, 
which  has  been  just  stated ;  and  also  from  the  distinct  man- 
ner in  which  we  read  that  God  accepted  them,  when 
offered  by  Abel,  Noah,  and  Abraham.  In  the  Book  of 
Job,  which  probably  contains  the  account  of  events  that 
happened  before  the  time  of  Abraham,  we  find  that  God 


RITES    AND    WORSHIP.  145 

expressly  directed  the  friends  of  the  patriarch  to  offer  sacri- 
fices, that  they  might  be  forgiven,  when  God  was  displeased 
with  them  because  they  had  not  spoken  of  him  in  a  right 
manner,  chap,  xlii,  8. 

The  first  mention  of  sacrifice  in  the  Bible,  is  that  of  Abel, 
Gen.  iv,  4  ;  and  the  manner  in  which  the  history  is  related, 
implies  that  there  was  a  stated  time  for  the  performance  of 
this  duty,  and  that  it  had  been  often  observed  before.  We 
must,  therefore,  conclude  that  Adam  offered  sacrifices ;  and 
it  is  generally  supposed  that  the  skins  of  beasts,  which  were 
given  to  Adam  and  Eve  for  clothes,  (Gen.  iii,  21,)  were  the 
skins  of  beasts  which  had  been  slain  for  sacrifices. 

As  it  is  declared  that  the  plan  of  redemption,  by  the 
death  of  the  only  and  beloved  son  of  God,  was  determined 
from  the  beginning,  we  learn  a  very  important  lesson  from 
this  account  of  the  origin  of  sacrifice,  which  is  apphcable 
to  the  sacrifices  of  the  heathens,  as  well  as  to  those  of  the 
Jews.  For  the  apostles,  in  their  discourses  recorded  in  the 
Acts,  did  not  reprove  the  heathens  for  offering  sacrifice,  the 
RITE  which  had  been  derived  from  the  common  parents  of 
all  mankind,  but  for  offering  sacrifice  to  men  of  like  pas- 
sions with  themselves,  or  idols,  "  vanities,"  ''  gold,  silver, 
and  stone,  graven  by  art  and  man's  device,"  instead  of  "  the 
living  God  which  made  heaven  and  earth,  and  the  sea,  and 
all  things  that  are  therein,"  Acts  xiv,  15 ;  xvii,  29. 

The  laying  on  of  hands  confessed  sinfulness  in  the  offerer, 
and  desired  that  it  might  be  transferred  to  the  victim.  The 
sla3dng  of  the  animal  that  was  sacrificed,  gave  an  instance 
or  example  of  that  death  which  had  been  denounced  as  the 
consequence  of  man's  disobedience.  It  exhibited  an  awful 
lesson  of  death,  which  is  the  wages  of  sin,  and  at  the  same  ■ 
time  represented  that  death  which  was  actually  to  be  un- 
dergone by  the  Redeemer  of  mankind.  Hereby  were  shown 
at  once  the  two  great  events  in  the  history  of  man,  the  fall 
and  the  recovery — the  death  denounced  against  sin,  and 
the  death  appointed  for  that  Holy  One  who  was  to  lay  down 
his  life  to  deliver  man  from  the  consequences  of  sin.  Thus 
the  appointment  of  the  sacrifice  of  animals  seems  to  have 
been  a  very  significant  rite  ;  it  contained  in  effect  all  the 
main  facts  of  religious  knowledge.  And  to  adopt  this  rite 
with  sincere  and  pious  feelings,  implied  an  humble  sense  of 
the  unworthiness  of  the  person  who  made  the  offering ;  also 
7 


146  JEWISH  NATION. 

it  was  a  confession  that  the  death  mflicted  on  the  victim 
was  deserved,  by  the  sin  that  had  proceeded  from  man's 
transgression ;  it  also  showed  a  full  reliance  upon  the 
promises  of  deliverance  made  after  the  fall. 

Doubtless  some  particulars  of  the  death  or  sacrifice  of 
Christ  were  made  known  from  the  time  when  the  Redeemer 
was  promised,  Gen.  iii,  15 ;  but,  as  this  is  not  expressly- 
stated  in  the  Bible,  it  is  suflScient  for  us  to  understand,  that 
the  sacrifice  of  animals  was  enjoined  as  a  mark,  or  proof, 
that  the  offerer  believed  in  the  promised  redemption,  or 
way  of  salvation,  although  without  having  a  precise  know- 
ledge how  it  was  to  be  accomplished. 

We  may  now  proceed  to  notice  what  is  related  as  to  the 
offering  of  Cain  and  Abel,  Gen.  iv  ; — why  Abel's  oflfering 
was  accepted  and  Cain's  rejected.  Abel,  firmly  relying  on 
the  promise  of  God,  and  obeying  the  Divine  command, 
sacrificed  some  of  his  lambs  or  kids,  which  he  had  been 
taught  was  a  rite  that  expressed  his  faith  in  a  promised 
Saviour.  Cain  either  cared  not  for  this  gracious  promise, 
or  was  unwilling  to  adopt  the  method  appointed  for  show- 
ing his  behef  of  it.  It  is  right  to  thank  God  for  the  daily 
mercies  we  receive.  It  is  our  duty  and  our  privilege  to 
bless  God  for  our  creation,  preservation,  and  all  the  bless- 
ings of  this  life ;  but,  above  all,  for  his  inestimable  love  in 
the  redemption  of  the  world  by  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ ;  for 
the  means  of  grace,  and  for  the  hope  of  glory.  And  when 
we  think  that  general  thankfulness  is  enough,  or  that  our 
good  actions  are  such  as  will  procure  for  us  forgiveness  of 
our  bad  acts,  we  are  very  hke  Cain,  when  he  thought  that 
the  fruits  he  had  raised  were  a  sufficient  sacrifice  and  offer- 
ing to  God. 

Here  the  account  of  the  meaning  and  of  the  origin  of 
sacrifices  may  be  closed.  It  is  a  most  important  subject ; 
for  all  religious  worship  is,  and  ever  has  been,  founded  on 
that  all-important  truth  which  is  pointed  out  by  it,  the 
necessity  of  an  atonement  by  Him  who  is  the  great  Offer- 
ing. These  particulars  were  necessary  to  show  the  reason 
for  the  religious  observances  described  in  the  following 
pages. 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  147 


CHAPTER  11. 

SACRIFICES  UNDER  THE  PATRIARCHAL  DISPENSATION. 
PLACES  FOR  SACRIFICES. 

The  sacrifices  mentioned  under  the  patriarchal  dispensation 
are,  the  whole  bumt-ofFering,  the  thank-offering,  and  the 
sacrifice  by  which  covenants  were  confirmed.  An  instance 
of  one  of  each  of  these  will  be  found,  on  referring  to  Gen. 
viii,  20;  xxxi,  54;  xv,  9-17.  By  the  account  respecting 
the  sacrifices  of  Cain  and  Abel,  the  latter  being  accepted 
while  the  former  was  rejected,  we  must  infer  that  laws  oi 
rules  had  been  given  respecting  such  sacrifices,  the  want  of 
the  due  observ^ance  of  which  caused  the  offering  of  Cain  to 
be  refused.  But  few  or  no  particulars  are  given  of  the 
ceremonies  with  which  these  sacrifices  were  offered.  For 
the  burnt-offering,  the  patriarchs  raised  an  altar,  or  heap 
of  stones  or  earth,  on  which  wood  was  piled,  Gen.  xxii,  9. 
The  animal  being  killed,  probably  its  skin  was  taken  off, 
the  carcass  laid  upon  the  wood,  and  a  fire  kindled,  by  which 
the  animal  was  consumed.  Or  the  animal,  if  a  lamb,  may 
have  been  bound,  laid  upon  the  wood,  and  then  killed.  In 
the  thank-offering,  a  part  only  of  the  offering  would  be 
consumed ;  the  rest  was  eaten  by  those  present,  as  when 
Jacob  and  Laban  covenanted  together,  and  were  reconciled, 
Gen.  xxxi.  We  read  in  the  margin  of  verse  54,  that  they 
killed  beasts  and  ate  bread  together ;  thus  their  meal  doubt- 
less was  a  feast  upon  a  sacrifice.  The  heap  of  stones  then 
raised  to  commemorate  the  event  might  serve  as  an  altar. 
The  offering  upon  the  confirmation  of  a  covenant  is  de- 
scribed more  fully  in  Gen.  xv,  9,  10.  A  heifer  and  a  ram 
were  divided,  and  the  pieces  laid  apart,  but  opposite  to 
each  other.  A  similar  sacrifice  is  mentioned,  Jer.  xxxiv, 
18,  19.  In  that  case,  the  parties  who  covenanted,  or  agreed 
together,  passed  between  the  pieces  of  the  sacrifice.  By 
this  ceremony  was  denoted,  that  if  either  of  them  broke  the 
covenant,  they  might  expect  in  like  manner  to  be  cut  asim- 
der  by  Divine  justice.  Such  appears  to  have  been  the  view 
taken  by  the  Jews,  and  by  the  heathens  among  whom  this 
sort  of  sacrifice  was  common.     And  in  the  account  of  Abra- 


148  JEWISH    NATION. 

ham*s  sacrifice,  (verse  IV,)  we  find  that  a  "  smoking  furnace 
and  a  lamp  of  fire"  passed  between  the  divided  carcasses, 
as  a  testimony  that  the  Lord  accepted  the  sacrifice,  and 
confirmed  the  covenant.  It  is  very  probable  that,  in  this 
instance  and  in  some  others,  the  offerings  were  consumed 
by  fire  from  heaven,  as  a  token  that  they  were  accepted ; 
though  that  such  was  not  usually  the  case,  appears  from 
Abraham's  carrying  fire  with  him,  when  preparing  to  sacri- 
fice his  son.  In  the  offering  described  Gen.  xv,  9,  each 
sort  of  animal  is  mentioned  that  was  afterwards  directed 
by  the  law  of  Moses  to  be  used  in  sacrifices.  Lev.  i,  3, 
10,  14. 

The  distinction  between  clean  and  unclean  beasts  before 
the  flood  (see  Gen.  vii.  2,)  has  been  noticed  as  a  proof  that 
a  revelation  had  been  made  respecting  an  appointed  pubhc 
worship,  which  is  confirmed  by  the  account  of  Noah  sacri- 
ficing immediately  after  the  flood,  without  any  new  direc- 
tion :  see  Gen.  viii,  20.  The  statement  that  Abraham  kept 
the  charge,  commandments,  statutes,  and  laws  of  the  Lord, 
(Gen.  xxvi,  5,)  may  also  have  reference  to  this  subject ;  for 
the  word  rendered  "  statutes,"  afterwards  is  applied  to  the 
rules,  decrees,  and  ordinances  about  God's  worship.  Al- 
though there  is  not  a  particular  account  of  any  ceremonies 
with  which  the  patriarchs  accompanied  these  offerings,  it  is 
very  plain  that  they  were  seasons  of  prayer  and  thanks- 
giving. And  if,  as  already  noticed,  there  is  reason  to  believe 
that  the  patriarchs  had  some  idea  of  the  nature  of  the  Great 
Atonement  prefigured  by  these  actions,  we  cannot  doubt 
but  that  they  called  upon  the  name  of  the  Lord  with  a 
lively  faith  upon  these  occasions,  looking  for  the  promised 
Saviour,  and  for  the  better  country,  the  heavenly  inheritance 
God  had  prepared  for  them. 

A  very  minute  and  particular  account  is  given  in  Levi- 
ticus, of  the  rites  and  ceremonies  with  which  the  sacrifices 
were  offered  under  the  second,  or  Mosaic  dispensation. 
These  will  be  noticed  when  we  describe  the  tabernacle  and 
temple  services.  Hitherto  we  have  spoken  of  the  nature 
and  design  of  the  sacrifices.  We  have  seen  that  they 
distinctly  had  reference  to  the  promised  Saviour,  and  thus 
the  first  two  dispensations  had  the  very  same  object  in 
view  as  the  third ;  all  true  religion  has  been  the  very  same, 
in  its  object  and  leading  principles,  from  the  time  when  our 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  149 

first  parents  were  sent  out  from  Eden,  to  the  present  day. 
It  is  necessary  to  state  this  great  truth  clearly,  that  it  may 
not  be  supposed  there  has  been  any  change  in  true  religion. 
In  fact,  there  cannot  have  been  any  such  thing  as  a  new 
true  religion.  The  promise  directly  after  the  fall  declared 
the  Messiah,  who  was  to  destroy  the  power  of  Satan,  Gen. 
iii,  15.  The  Lord  Jesus  Christ  was  the  Saviour  promised 
from  the  beginning ;  he  is  expressly  called,  "  The  Lamb 
slain  from  the  foundation  of  the  world,"  Rev.  xiii,  8 ; 
1  Pet.  i,  19,  20.  Believers  were  chosen  in  him  before  the 
foundation  of  the  world,  Eph.  i,  4.  Jesus  Christ  is  "the 
same  yesterday,  and  to-day,  and  forever,"  Heb.  xiii,  8  ; 
"  the  First  and  the  Last,"  Rev.  i,  17.  The  heathen  used  to 
choose  new  gods  for  themselves,  and  they  do  so  at  the 
present  day  ;  but  the  patriarch,  the  ancient  Jew,  and  the 
Christian  of  every  age,  have  had  but  one  common  religion, 
although  in  rites  and  ceremonies  they  have  been  permitted, 
and  even  directed,  to  differ  from  each  other. 

Thus  the  bloody  sacrifices,  that  is,  offerings  in  which 
there  was  the  shedding  of  blood,  were  made  for  the  ac- 
knowledgments of  guilt ;  and  presented  evidence  of  belief  in 
the  pardon  of  sin,  through  a  great  atonement,  or  sacrifice, 
of  which  these  were  emblems  or  types.  Among  the  Isra- 
elites, only  what  were  called  clean  beasts  or  birds  were 
offered  ;  among  the  heathen,  other  animals  were  also  sacri- 
ficed, even  those  which  the  Israelites  were  especially  di- 
rected to  consider  abominations,  defiling  whatever  they 
touched. 

The  bloodless  sacrifices,  or  meat-offerings,  were  solely 
from  the  fruits  of  the  earth.  Here  it  will  be  well  to  re- 
mark, that  the  word  "meat,"  as  used  m  the  English  Bible, 
almost  always  means  food  in  general,  or  anything  that  is  to 
be  eaten,  not,  as  we  now  often  understand  it,  only  animal 
food  or  flesh-meat.  These  meat-offerings  were  sometimes 
wholly  consumed  upon  the  altar ;  then  they  were  also 
reckoned  as  burnt-offerings. 

Drink-offerings  were  of  wine,  and  only  used  with 
other  sacrifices,  part  being  poured  over  the  victim,  or  any 
other  substance  which  was  offered. 

Those  offerings  which  were  not  wholly  burned,  are  to 
be  considered  as  expressing  thankfulness  to  God  for 
mercies,  rather  than  to  represent  or  typify  the  Saviour, 


150  JEWISH  NATION. 

the  great  sin-ofFering  for  the  sins  of  the  world ;  and  fur- 
ther details  respecting  them  need  not  be  entered  into  in 
this  place. 

Thus  the  sacrifices,  instituted  from  the  fall  of  man,  were 
intended  continually  to  represent  the  Saviour  as  the  Great 
Atonement  for  sin,  and  the  Way  of  salvation,  before  he 
came  upon  earth.  Since  his  death,  the  sacrifices  have  been 
done  away,  as  is  clearly  stated  in  the  Epistle  to  the  He- 
brews. The  record  of  Christ,  given  in  the  New  Testament, 
is  so  full  and  clear,  that  we  do  not  need  to  have  emblem- 
atical representations  continually  presented  now,  to  remind 
us  of  his  sufferings,  their  design,  and  of  what  they  have 
accomplished.  The  spiritual  sacrifice  of  prayers  and  praises, 
are  what  we  are  directed  to  offer  under  the  Christian  dis- 
pensation. But  it  would  be  wrong  to  suppose  that  this 
SPIRITUAL  WORSHIP  was  Icss  ncccssary,  or  less  in  use,  un- 
der the  patriarchal  and  Mosaic  dispensations,  than  it  is 
now.  The  sacrifices  offered  by  the  friends  of  Job,  were  to 
be  accompanied  by  the  prayers  of  the  patriarchs  for  them. 
Job  xhi,  8-10.  Divine  worship  always  has  been  the  same 
in  these  respects ;  it  includes  prayer  for  mercies  needed, 
praise  for  mercies  received. 

As  every  action  of  our  lives  calls  for  prayer  and  praise, 
so  there  is  no  place  in  which  this  spiritual  worship  may  not 
be  offered  up.  The  apostle  desired  that  men  should  pray 
everywhere,  1  Tim.  ii,  8.  Solomon,  even  when  dedicating 
the  temple  as  a  special  house  of  prayer  for  Israel,  spoke  of 
their  praying  elsewhere,  1  Kings  viii,  38,  47,  48.  Mala- 
chi  (i,  11)  speaks  of  incense,  as  a  figurative  expression  for 
prayer,  being  ofiered  in  every  place.  Manasseh  prayed  in 
his  dungeon,  2  Chron.  xxxiii,  12 ;  and  Jeremiah  also.  Lam. 
iii,  55,  56  ;  Jonah  (ii,  1)  in  the  whale's  belly;  the  penitent 
thief  upon  the  cross,  Luke  xxiii,  42  ;  Paul  and  the  Syrian 
Christians  on  the  seashore.  Acts  xx,  36.  And  as  to 
praises,  we  find  that  Paul  and  Silas,  at  midnight,  prayed 
and  sang  praises  to  God,  not  only  in  the  inner  prison,  but 
with  their  feet  fast  in  the  stocks.  Acts  xvi,  24,  25.  The 
example  of  Nehemiah  must  not  be  forgotten ;  he  prayed 
while  waiting  upon  the  king  of  Persia  at  dinner,  and  his 
prayer  was  heard  and  answered,  Neh.  ii,  4. 

There  are  many  other  instances  found  in  the  Bible  ;  but 
these  are  enough,  especially  when  we  refer  to  the  example 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  151 

of  our  blessed  Lord- himself,  who,  though  he  often  went  up 
to  the  temple,  yet  still  more  frequently, — 

"  Cold  mountains,  and  the  midnight  air, 
Witness'd  the  fervor  of  his  prayer." 

Nathanael  seems  to  have  found  a  place  under  a  fig-tree, 
(John  i,  48,)  where  no  one  could  behold  him  but  that  Eye 
which  sees  all  things. 

As  to  places  for  prayer  in  ancient  times,  Daniel  (vi,  10) 
prayed  in  his  chamber,  having  the  windows  open  toward 
Jerusalem.  The  disciples,  after  our  Lord's  ascension,  re- 
sorted to  an  upper  room,  where  they  continued  in  prayer 
and  supplication.  Acts  i,  13,  14.  Peter  prayed  on  the 
house-top,  Acts  x,  9.  There  were  buildings  for  prayer, 
which  will  be  noticed  hereafter.  It  is  clearly  shown  in  the 
Bible,  that,  from  the  beginning,  places  have  been  appro- 
priated or  set  apart  for  solemn  public,  as  well  as  for  private 
prayer  and  other  worship.  The  patriarchs,  after  the  flood, 
placed  altars  for  oJBFerings  upon  mountains,  and  in  groves, 
and  worshiped  by  their  altars ;  and  we  may  conclude  that 
the  same  was  done  by  those  who  lived  before  the  flood. 
Noah  built  an  altar  to  the  Lord,  Gen.  viii,  20 ;  Abraham 
built  altars  wherever  he  pitched  his  tent  for  any  length  of 
time.  Gen.  xii,  8  ;  xiii,  4 ;  xxi,  33.  He  planted  a  grove  in 
Beersheba,  and  there  called  upon  the  name  of  the  Lord. 
From  the  manner  in  which  the  offering  of  Isaac  was  di- 
rected, (Gen.  xxii,  2,)  it  appears,  that  then,  as  afterward, 
mountains  were  sometimes  resorted  to  for  worship.  Jacob 
called  a  place  by  the  name  of  Bethel,  or  God's  house, 
where  he  vowed  to  give  to  the  Lord  the  tenth  of  the  sub- 
stance he  might  acquire.  Gen  xxviii,  22  ;  and  xxxv,  1 ;  af- 
terward, when  he  had  forgotten  or  neglected  to  do  as  he 
vowed,  the  Lord  reminded  him  of  his  engagement,  and  di- 
rected him  to  go  to  Bethel,  to  dwell  there,  and  to  make  an 
altar  there.  These  places  were  in  reality  similar  to  the 
houses  of  God,  as  the  buildings  for  ^vine  worship,  under 
the  other  dispensations,  have  been  called. 

It  is  evident,  that  the  seclusion  of  a  mountain  or  a  grove 
is  favorable  for  calling  off  the  thoughts  from  the  world  and 
worldly  objects,  which  is  so  necessary  when  man  communes 
with  his  Maker ;  but  the  depraved  heart  of  man,  under  the 
influence  of  Satan,  continually  perverts  iox  evil  that  which 


152  JEWISH    NATION. 

has  originally  been  directed  for  good.  Even  the  idolatrous 
and  heathen  sacrifices  were  founded  upon  the  great  principle 
for  religious  worship,  impressed  on  the  mind  of  man,  and  de- 
clared by  the  apostle  Paul,  "  that  they  should  seek  the  Lord, 
if  haply  they  might  feel  after  him,  and  find  him,  though 
he  be  not  far  from  every  one  of  us,"  Acts  xvii,  27 ;  but 
wicked  and  abominable  ceremonies  were  connected  with 
many  of  these  rites,  and  the  concealment  afforded  by  a  thick 
grove  was  favorable  for  the  proceedings  of  those  who  changed 
the  truth  of  God  into  a  lie.  We  therefore  find,  that  in  the 
second  dispensation,  when  God  appointed  a  house  or  build- 
ing for  the  ceremonial  worship  he  then  instituted,  it  was  to 
be  in  the  most  public,  open,  and  crowded  place  of  resort. 
From  that  time  the  groves  were  strictly  forbidden  to  be 
used  as  places  for  religious  worship,  and  the  Israelites  were 
ordered  to  destroy  them,  Exod.  xxxiv,  13 ;  Deut.  xii,  3. 
It  has  been  said  that  God  would  have  no  groves  or  thick- 
ets about  his  altar,  that  there  might  be  no  room  for  suspi- 
cion that  anything  improper  was  transacted  there.  Every 
part  of  the  divine  worship  was  publicly  performed.  And 
repeatedly,  when  mention  is  made  of  idolatrous  practices, 
or  the  removal  of  idolatrous  abominations,  we  find  they 
were  connected  with  groves.  Thus,  Gideon  cut  down  a 
grove  that  was  by  the  altar  of  Baal,  Judg.  vi,  25.  Asa, 
Hezekiah,  and  Josiah,  also  cut  down  the  groves;  and 
Ahab's  making  a  grove  is  connected  with  his  doing  more  to 
provoke  the  Lord  God,  than  all  the  kings  of  Israel  that 
were  before  him,  2  Ejngs  xviii,  4;  xxiii,  14;  2  Chron. 
xiv,  3.  There  are  other  passages,  both  in  the  history  of 
the  kings,  and  in  the  prophets,  which  speak  of  the  groves. 
In  some  places,  the  word  may  mean  the  images  of  some  of 
the  false  gods  or  goddesses  ;  but  as  these  were  usually 
worshiped  in  groves,  the  distinction  need  not  be  gone  into. 
We  learn  from  hence  how  expressly  the  Israelites  were 
commanded  to  avoid  whatever  had  become  an  occasion  of 
evil,  although  at  first  it  might  have  been  connected  with 
what  was  good. 

The  heathen  temples  were  often  surrounded  by  these 
thick  groves.  At  Daphne,  near  to  Antioch,  in  Syria,  was 
a  magnificent  temple  in  honor  of  Apollo.  The  temple  and 
the  adjacent  buildings  were  enveloped  in  a  wood  of  laurels 
and  cypresses,  which  formed  a  thick  ever-verdant  grove. 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  163 

impenetrable  to  the  rays  of  the  sun,  and  covering  an  ex- 
tent of  ten  miles  in  circumference.  Herodotus  describes  the 
temple  of  Mercury,  at  Bubastis,  in  Egypt,  as  surrounded  by 
a  grove  of  large  trees,  the  tops  "  reaching  up  to  heaven." 

The  Jewish  altars,  under  the  second  dispensation,  some- 
times were  set  up  on  hills  and  high  places ;  but  these  were 
altars  erected  to  the  Lord  in  other  spots  than  that  espe- 
cially appointed  for  the  tabernacle  and  temple.  We  find 
Elijah,  in  1  Kings  xviii,  30,  repairing  the  altar  of  the  Lord 
in  Mount  Carmel,  when  he  had  that  memorable  trial  with 
the  priests  of  Baal,  which  clearly  showed  the  Israelites  the 
difference  between  an  idol  and  the  most  high  God.  This 
altar,  it  is  supposed,  had  been  erected  in  the  time  of  the 
Judges ;  and  it  is  remarkable,  that  two  Roman  historians 
mention  that  Vespasian,  the  Roman  emperor,  went  to  an 
altar  on  Mount  Carmel,  venerable  for  its  antiquity,  where 
there  was  neither  temple  nor  statue.  At  that  time  the 
altar  was  used  by  a  heathen  priest ;  but  it  probably  was  on 
the  same  spot  as  the  one  repaired  by  Elijah ;  perhaps  the 
same  pile  of  stones  ;  and  the  remembrance  of  the  wondrous 
manifestations  made  at  that  time,  had  prevented  the  erection 
of  an  idol  near  it. 

It  was  unlawful  to  offer  sacrifices  in  high  places,  after 
God  fixed  upon  a  place  for  his  worship,  Deut.  xii,  2-15. 
The  persisting  in  so  doing  is  mentioned  among  the  sins  of 
the  people,  2  Kings  xv,  35  ;  though,  before  that  time,  there 
are  repeated  instances  of  the  prophets  and  other  good  men 
offering  sacrifice  in  high  places  and  elsewhere.  Thus  Saul 
found  Samuel  going  up  to  the  high  place  of  the  city  where 
he  dwelt,  1  Sam.  ix,  14.  The  tabernacle  itself  was  removed 
to  the  high  place  which  was  in  Gibeon,  1  Chron.  xxi,  29. 
It  is  explained,  however,  that  David's  offering  sacrifice  at 
the  threshing-floor  of  Oman,  w^s  in  consequence  of  the 
pressure  of  the  danger  not  allowing  him  to  repair  to  Gibeon  ; 
and  also  because  the  Lord  answered  him  there,  and  ex- 
pressly commanded  him  to  erect  an  altar  in  that  place, 
1  Chron,  xxi,  18,  28-30.  The  sacrifice  of  Elijah  at  Carmel 
is  sufficiently  accounted  for  from  the  pressing  circumstances 
of  the  case.  After  the  temple  had  been  erected,  there  are 
repeated  instances  of  the  kings  and  people,  both  of  Israel 
and  Judah,  engaging  in  idolatrous  worship,  for  which 
{1  Kings  xiv,  23)  they  built  liigh  places;  these  probably 


154  JEWISH  NATION. 

were  lofty  buildings,  rather  than  erections  upon  hills,  though 
we  read  (2  Chron.  xxi,  11)  of  Jehoram  making  high  places 
in  the  mountains  of  Judah. 

It  has  been  stated,  that  the  law  given  by  Moses  forbade 
the  offering  sacrifices  in  any  other  place  but  the  temple. 
In  the  history  of  Asa,  his  allowing  the  high  places  to  re- 
main is  blamed,  (2  Chron.  xv,  17,)  though  there  is  no  reason 
to  suppose  he  sanctioned  idolatry.  But  there  was  no  law 
against  the  use  of  high  places  for  prayer  and  spiritual  wor- 
ship. Again,  let  it  be  observed,  that  before  the  temple 
was  erected,  and  the  place  the  Lord  should  choose  (Josh, 
ix,  27)  finally  pointed  out,  there  are  many  instances  of 
sacrifices  being  offered  and  accepted  in  other  places  besides 
the  tabernacle :  thus  Gideon  and  Manoah,  Judg.  vi,  26,  and 
xiii,  19  ;  and  Samuel  went  to  Bethlehem  to  sacrifice,  when 
he  anointed  David,  1  Sam.  xvi,  5.  But  when  Jeroboam  re- 
volted from  Rehoboam,  and  began  rites  of  worship  which 
soon  became  wholly  idolatrous,  if  they  were  not  so  at  the ' 
very  first,  he  made  a  house  of  high  places,  (1  Kings  xii,  31,) 
and  his  doing  so  is  blamed.  The  temple  had  then  been 
built. 

Here  may  be  mentioned,  that  the  stupendous  pile  called 
Stonehenge,  in  Wiltshire,  England,  is  thought  to  have  been 
one  of  these  "  high  places,"  where  lofty  piles  of  stones  were 
erected  for  the  purposes  of  sacrifice.  Such  erections, 
doubtless,  have  been  in  use  from  the  days  of  the  patriarchs. 
The  altar  erected  by  Moses  imder  Mount  Sinai,  with  the 
twelve  pillars,  according  to  the  number  of  the  tribes  of  Israel, 
(Exod.  xxiv,  4)  would  be  like  one  of  the  erections  which 
are  called  cromlechs,  or  stone  circles,  by  antiquaries,  as  to 
general  resemblance  ;  but  the  purposes  for  which  it  was  de- 
signed were  very  different.  That  altar  was  for  burnt-offer- 
ings to  the  Lord  Jehovah,  and  may  be  considered  as  uniting 
the  patriarchal  sacrifices%vith  those  of  the  second  dispen- 
sation, just  then  about  to  be  established,  and  the  pillars  were 
in  remembrance  of  the  twelve  tribes ;  but  there  is  no  doubt 
that  the  heathen  cromlechs  were  dedicated  to  the  worship 
of  Baal,  or  of  the  serpent,  which,  in  fact,  was  the  worship 
of  Satan ! 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  155 


CHAPTER  III. 
THE  JEWISH  NATION— ITS  RITUAL  AND  WORSHIP. 

The  state  of  the  world  at  the  close  of  the  patriarchal  dis- 
pensation had  become  very  wicked.  Idolatry  prevailed  in 
almost  every  part,  and  among  every  people,  excepting  the 
family  of  Abraham.  The  Egyptians  were  the  wisest  and 
most  celebrated  nation,  the  Assyrians  the  first  powerful 
empire,  the  Canaanites  the  most  warlike  nation,  and  the 
Phoenicians  more  engaged  in  commerce  and  foreign  trade 
than  any  other  people :  but  all  these  were  corrupted  by  ab- 
surd and  impious  idolatries.  In  mercy  to  mankind,  God  at 
this  period  selected  the  family  of  Abraham,  and  caused  it  to 
multiply  into  a  nation,  among  whom  the  worship  of  the  true 
God  should  be  preserved ;  whose  history  should  exhibit  an 
example  of  the  Divine  Providence  continually  superintend- 
ing their  conduct ;  and  through  whom  the  blessed  tidings 
of  the  promised  Saviour  should  be  made  known  to  all  the 
earth.  Gen.  xii,  1-3.  For  this  people,  so  chosen,  a  code  of 
laws  was  prepared,  which  in  every  part  had  reference  to  the 
only  and  true  God,  who  made  himself  known  to  them  as 
Jehovah  !  a  name  signifying  self-existence,  eternity,  and  al- 
mighty power. 

The  tabernacle  first,  and  afterwards  the  temple,  were 
emblematical  parts  of  this  peculiar  system.  That  building 
was  not  to  be  deemed  a  dwelling-place  for  an  earthly 
monarch,  but  as  a  royal  mansion,  erected  for  their  God  and 
King,  in  which  he  was  considered  to  take  up  his  abode,  as 
a  supreme  and  almighty  Governor  among  his  subjects.  To 
this  place  the  people  might  always  have  recourse,  to  receive 
his  commands,  to  offer  their  petitions,  and  to  learn  his  will, 
while  peculiar  manifestations  of  his  august  presence  were 
visibly  made  there.  The  sanctuary  was,  in  consequence, 
splendidly  furnished,  and  a  numerous  retinue  of  servants 
and  ministers  were  always  in  attendance.  Hence  many  of 
the  peculiar  rites  and  ceremonies  under  the  Jewish  dispen- 
sation ;  and  the  express  directions  that  the  ritual  worship  of 
the  Jewish  Church  should  be  offered  nowhere  but  at  the 
holy  place.     We  must  not,  however,  for  a  moment,  suppose 


156  JEWISH  NATION. 

that  the  High  and  Lofty  One,  who  inhabiteth  all  space, 
dwelt  really,  or,  as  it  is  expressed,  hodily,  in  this  habitation, 
Acts  vii,  48 ;  xvii,  24  ;  though,  it  is  true,  he  there  gave  a 
more  visible  manifestation  of  his  presence  than  is  now  ex- 
hibited on  earth. 

In  the  tabernacle  and  the  temple,  a  part  of  the  sacred 
building  was  partitioned  off.  In  this  inner  place  was  seen 
a  bright  shining  cloud,  which  the  Jews  called  the  sheki- 
nah,  the  symbol  of  Divine  presence.  It  appeared  as  if 
resting  between  two  figures,  or  angelic  representations, 
called  cherubim,  upon  the  top  of  an  ark  or  chest,  called 
the  mercy-seat,  (Exod.  xl,  34-38,  and  2  Chron.  vii,  1,  2,) 
and  at  times  it  filled  all  the  sanctuary.  These  holy  places, 
and  their  furniture,  were  figurative  representations  of  hea- 
ven, of  Christ,  and  of  the  worship  of  the  Church  ;  the  be- 
lieving Israelites  were  thus  reminded  continually  of  the 
peculiar  dispensation  under  which  they  lived,  having  the 
presence  of  their  Lord  and  God  among  them,  in  a  symbolical 
representation,  in  a  manner  very  different  from  what  was 
the  case  with  any  other  nation.  Some  writers  have  said, 
that  many  parts  of  the  Jewish  rites  and  ceremonies,  and 
even  the  form  of  the  tabernacle,  were  copied  from  similar 
things  among  the  Egyptians.  But  Witsius  has  fully  shown, 
that  not  the  least  reliance  can  be  placed  on  any  statements 
of  this  kind  ;  and  that  the  Jewish  ritual,  with  all  its  ceremo- 
nies, and  restraints  as  to  food,  was  very  strongly  contrasted 
to  the  gross  inventions  of  idolatry.  It  more  opposed  hea- 
thenism, and  marked  the  peculiar  state  of  the  Jewish  peo- 
ple more  decidedly,  than  the  simple  and  purely  spiritual 
worship,  which  was  also  taught  them,  would  alone  have 
done.  Thus  Josephus  says,  that  all  their  actions  and  stu- 
dies, and  all  their  words,  according  to  the  law  of  Moses, 
taught  the  Jews  religious  or  pious  feelings  towards  God ; 
for  he  had  left  nothing  of  this  nature  undetermined.  It  is 
impossible  here  to  go  at  any  great  length  into  this  subject ; 
and  the  English  reader  may  refer  to  Lowman  and  Dean 
Graves  ;  they  say  quite  enough  to  silence  the  cavils  of  those 
who  think  that  the  Jewish  ritual,  so  expressly  directed  by 
the  holy  Lord  God,  could  in  any  respect  be  derived  from 
the  vile  human  inventions  of  idolatry,  though  these  in 
many  cases  were  imitations  of  parts  of  the  patriarchal  and 
Mosaic  institutions. 


RITES   AND   WORSHIP.  157 

Here,  then,  we  arrive  at  the  conclusion  that  the  Jewish 
WORSHIP  was  twofold. 

1.  There  was  a  ritual  worship,  in  which  they  recognized 
God's  peculiar  dealings  with  them  as  a  nation,  and  by  a 
number  of  rites  and  ceremonies,  testified  their  sense  of  his 
favors  :  while  these  rites  continually  pointed  the  attention 
of  the  worshiper  to  the  promises  of  that  great  Saviour 
who  should  come  among  them  at  the  appointed  time. 
This  was  the  tabernacle,  or  temple  worship,  with  the  sacri- 
fices and  offerings  ;  and  every  ceremony  connected  there- 
with gave  some  useful  instruction,  or  would  help  to  guard 
against  idolatry,  while  it  prepared  for  the  more  perfect  and 
spiritual  state  of  religion  under  the  Messiah. 

2.  There  was  a  personal,  family,  and  congregational 
spiritual  worship,  in  which  the  believer,  both  in  private 
and  public,  offered  prayer  and  praise.  The  synagogue 
worship  belonged  to  this  class ;  it  resembled  the  worship 
of  the  Christian  dispensation,  which  spiritual  worship  has 
continued,  while  the  temple  worship,  with  its  ceremonies 
and  offerings,  has  been  done  away  by  the  coming  of 
Christ ;  that  is,  by  the  fulfillment,  or  coming  to  pass,  of  the 
events  those  ceremonies  represented  or  shadowed  forth. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  TABERNACLE, -AND  THE  ARTICLES  THEREIN. 

The  tabernacle  was  the  only  place  where  the  public  ritual 
of  Jewish  national  worship  was  to  be  celebrated.  The  di- 
rections how  it  was  to  be  constructed  were  given  by  the 
Lord  to  Moses,  Exod.  xxvi.  This  place  is  mentioned  under 
different  names  in  the  Old  Testament.  It  is  called  a  tent, 
a  habitation,  a  sanctuary,  a  house,  the  dwelling-place  of 
Jehovah's  glory,  Jehovah's  tent,  and  the  tent  of  the  con- 
gregation, and  sometimes  the  palace,  although  these  names 
are  not  always  preserved  distinctly  in  our  English  version. 
There  was  another  tabernacle  erected  a  short  time  before, 
(see  Exod.  xxxiii,  Y,)  called  the  tabernacle  of  the  congrega- 
tion, probably  a  large  tent,  where  Moses  transacted  public 
business. 


158 


JEWISH   NATION. 


PUTTING  UP  OF  THE  TABERNACLE. 

The  engraving  shows  the  appearance  of  the  tabernacle 
as  it  may  properly  be  called,  which  it  will  be  seen  was 
a  movable  place  of  worship,  that  could  be  taken  to  pieces, 
and  carried  from  place  to  place.  The  reader  will  find  an 
account  of  the  tabernacle,  and  the  articles  it  contained,  in 
Exodus  XX  to  XXX,  and  xxxvi  to  xl. 

The  outer  inclosure  was  the  court  of  the  tabernacle, 
about  150  feet  long  and  75  feet  broad.  This  was  sur- 
rounded on  all  sides  with  linen  curtains,  hanging  from  silver 
rods,  which  extended  from  one  column  to  another.  On  the 
east  and  west  sides  were  ten  columns,  twenty  on  the  north, 
and  as  many  on  the  south.  These  columns  were  of  shittim- 
wood,  a  sort  of  acacia ;  or  some  thmk  it  was  cedar.  Each 
post  was  fixed  in  a  socket,  or  large  piece  of  brass.  Near 
the  top  of  the  columns  silver  hooks  were  fixed,  on  which 
the  curtain  rods  rested.  The  entrance  was  on  the  east.  A 
curtain,  or  piece  of  tapestiy,  richly  wrought  with  blue,  pur- 
ple, and  scarlet,  hung  on  the  four  middle  columns  of  that 
side,  which  was  drawn  up,  and  thus  left  three  entrances 
adjoining  each  other. 

The  tabernacle  or  tent  was  placed  about  the  middle  of 
the  western  side  of  the  court.  It  was  an  oblong  square, 
about  54  feet  long  from  west  to  east,  and  18  feet  from  north 
to  south.  The  walls  or  sides  were  formed  of  forty-eight 
wooden  planks  of  shittim-wood,  each  rather  more  than  two 
feet  and  a  half  broad,  and  18  feet  long.     Twenty  of  these 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP. 


159 


THE  COURT  OF  THE    TABERNACLE. 


boards  formed  the  north  side ;  as  many  were  used  for  the 
south ;  and  six  on  the  west ;  an  additional  board  being 
placed  at  each  western  corner.  The  planks  were  covered 
with  plates  of  gold,  their  ends  were  fixed  by  mortices  and 
tenons,  in  blocks  of  silver,  weighing  about  one  hundred 
pounds  weight,  two  to  each  board  ;  bars  covered  with  gold 
extended  along  each  side,  to  unite  the  whole  firmly  toge- 
ther. The  eastern  end  was  left  for  the  entrance,  and 
was  closed  by  a  curtain  of  worked  linen  cloth,  hanging 
from  silver  rods,  which  rested  upon  five  columns  covered 
with  gold.  The  roof,  some  think,  was  a  frame  of  wood 
resting  upon  the  upright  planks,  and  over  this  were  four 
coverings  of  different  materials  made  up  in  several  curtains, 
joined  together  by  loops  and  couplings.  Others  consider 
that  the  coverings  formed  the  only  roofing.  The  under- 
most was  of  fine  twined  linen :  it  hung  down  to  about  two 
feet  from  the  earth,  and  had  figures  of  the  cherubim 
wrought  upon  it  with  blue,  purple,  and  scarlet.  The  next 
covering  was  of  goats'  hair,  woven  into  a  sort  of  cloth  ; 
the  third  was  a  covering  of  rams'  skins  dyed  red ;  the 
fourth  of  what  is  called  in  our  translation  badgers'  skins ; 
but  what  animal  is  meant  is  not  certain.  The  three  outer 
coverings  reached  to  the  ground.  The  tabernacle  was 
divided  into  two  unequal  parts ;  the  first  occupied   about 


160  JEWISH  NATION. 

iwo-thirds  of  the  length,  or  nearly  35  feet.  This  was 
called  the  Holy  Place,  or  the  First  Tabernacle,  Heb.  ix,  2. 
The  inner  apartment  was  only  half  the  length ;  it  was 
separated  from  the  outer  by  a  wrought  curtain  or  veil,  and 
was  called  the  Most  Holy  Place.  The  height  of  each 
apartment  was  the  length  of  the  planks,  or  18  feet. 


CHAPTER  V. 

THE  FURNITUKE  AND  UTENSILS  OF  THE  TABERNACLE. 

About  the  middle  of  the  outer  court  was  the  altar  for 
burnt-offerings.  It  was  a  sort  of  coffer  or  chest,  made  of 
shittim-wood,  nearly  five  feet  and  a  half  in  height,  and  nine 
feet  in  length  and  breadth.  It  rested  on  four  short  feet  of 
brass,  which  were  hollow,  and  through  which  the  blood  of 
the  victim  flowed  out.  The  sides  were  covered  with  brass; 
the  inner  space,  it  is  supposed,  was  filled  with  earth,  on 
which  the  fire  was  kindled  upon  a  grate  of  brass :  see  Exod. 
xxxviii,  1-Y.  The  four  comers  of  the  altar  projected  up- 
wards, so  as  to  resemble  Horns,  1  Kings  ii,  28 ;  Psalm 
cxviii,  27.  To  these  the  victims  were  bound ;  and  criminals,  as 
in  the  cases  of  Joab  and  Adonijah,  caught  hold  of  them. 
These  horns,  however,  were  not  considered  as  protecting  a 
heinous  criminal.  At  the  four  comers  were  rings,  through 
which  were  put  the  poles  used  for  carrying  the  altar.  On 
the  south  side  was  an  ascent  to  the  altar,  (Lev.  ix,  22,)  made 
of  earth  heaped  up. 

There  were  various  articles  for  the  use  of  the  altar,  as 
pots  or  ums  to  take  away  the  ashes,  shovels,  basins,  flesh- 
hooks,  and  fire-pans :  all  these  were  made  of  brass :  see 
Exod.  xxxviii,  1-7.  The  fire  upon  this  altar  was  miracu- 
lously kindled,  and  was  kept  perpetually  burning.  Lev.  ix,  24 ; 
vi,  12,  13.  This  fire  is  considered  to  have  been  emblemati- 
cal of  the  wrath  of  God  against  sin,  Heb.  xii,  29 ;  Isa. 
xxxiii,  14.  The  Spirit  of  God  also  is  compared  to  fire, 
Matt,  iii,  1 1 ;  Isa.  iv,  4  ;  and  his  influences  are  a  sacred  fire 
that  never  goes  oiit.  The  Divine  word  and  ordinances  also 
are  likened  to  fire,  Jer.  xxiii,  29  ;  and  we  read  of  fiery  trials 
and  afflictions,  1  Pet.  iv,  12. 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  161 

Between  the  altar  and  the  tabernacle  was  placed  a  laver, 
or  large  basin,  with  an  ornamented  stand  or  foot,  in  which 
the  priests  washed  their  hands  and  feet,  when  about  to  per- 
form their  duties.  It  was  made  of  brass,  of  the  looking- 
glasses  of  the  women  who  assembled  at  the  door  of  the 
tabernacle,  Exod.  xxxviii,  8.  This  description  has  puzzled 
many  modern  readers ;  but  it  means  that  the  laver  was 
formed  of  the  brazen  mirrors  used  by  the  women.  At  that 
time  glass  was  not  in  use,  and  it  would  not  be  "suitable  for 
making  such  a  basin.  In  ancient  times  the  women  had 
small  plates,  or  flat  pieces  of  metal,  very  highly  polished, 
which  showed  the  face  nearly  as  well  as  our  present  look- 
ing-glasses. These  they  usually  earned  about  with  them. 
The  Greek  version  adds,  that  the  women  here  mentioned 
were  fasting  at  the  doors  of  the  tabernacle,  on  the  day  when 
it  was  first  set  up. 

The  tabernacle  had  no  windows,  but  there  was  a  large 
candlestick  or  candelabra,  (represented  in  the  cut  page  7,) 
the  main  pillar  of  which  was  five  feet  high,  according  to 
Jewish  writers.  It  had  six  branches ;  and  at  the  end  of 
each,  and  at  the  top  of  the  main  stem,  was  a  lamp.  All 
the  seven  lights  were  kept  constantly  burning  in  the  night ; 
but,  according  to  Josephus,  only  three  in  the  daytime  ;  and, 
from  Exod.  xxx,  8,  it  appears  that  a  part,  if  not  the  whole, 
were  lighted  in  the  evening.  In  the  morning,  a  priest  put 
the  lamps  in  order,  with  the  gold  snuffers  made  for  that 
purpose,  and  removed  the  snuff  and  dregs  in  a  golden  ves- 
sel. He  then  filled  the  lamps  with  the  purest  olive-oil, 
such  as  ran  easily  from  the  fruit  when  bruised,  without  be- 
ing pressed.  The  candlestick,  with  the  articles  belonging 
to  it,  weighed  a  talent,  or  one  hundred  and  twenty-five 
pounds,  and  was  made  of  pure  gold,  very  beautifully  wrought 
with  buds  and  flowers,  and  various  ornaments. 

In  the  holy  place,  also,  was  a  table  of  shittim-wood, 
about  three  feet  and  a  half  in  length,  twenty  inches  broad, 
and  thirty  in  height,  covered  with  plates  of  gold,  and  orna- 
mented with  a  border  of  wrought  gold.  There  was  an  orna- 
mented cornice  or  border  round  about,  to  keep  the  frame- 
work steady ;  also  golden  rings  for  the  staves  to  carry  it. 
Upon  this  table  were  placed  twelve  unleavened  loaves,  each 
containing  about  ten  pints  of  fine  flour,  which  were  changed 
for  fresh  loaves  every  week.     These  loaves,  called  the  shew- 


162  JEWISH    NATION. 

bread,  were  arranged  in  two  piles,  sprinkled  with  frankin- 
cense and  salt.  The  name  given  in  the  original  literally 
means,  "  bread  of  the  face,"  because  it  was  placed  before 
the  face  or  presence  of  Jehovah.  Also,  it  is  called  the 
bread  arranged  in  order,  and  the  perpetual  bread :  see  Lev. 
xxiv,  6,  7 ;  1  Chron.  xxiii,  29.  Wine  was  placed  upon  the 
table  in  bowls  or  cups,  called  vials ;  and  there  were  dishes, 
and  spoons,  and  covers,  all  of  gold. 

A  small  .altar  for  incense  was  placed  near  the  veil  which 
divided  the  apartments.  This  was  made  of  shittim-wood, 
twenty-one  inches  in  length  and  breadth,  and  three  feet  and 
a  half  in  height.  It  was  ornamented  and  plated  with  gold ; 
hence  it  was  called  the  golden  altar,  to  distinguish  it  from 
the  brazen  altar  in  the  outer  court.  It  had  an  ornamented 
border,  and  rings  for  the  staves  by  which  it  was  carried. 
On  this  altar  incense  was  burned  every  morning  and  even- 
ing. The  incense  was  a  compomid  of  drugs,  mentioned 
Exod.  XXX,  34-38,  and  when  burned  made  a  sweet  per- 
fume. No  other  perfume  might  be  used  in  the  sanctuary ; 
nor  was  this  composition  to  be  used  for  any  common  pur- 
poses. The  incense  was  typical  of  Christ's  intercession,  and 
of  prayer :  thus  the  golden  altar  was  a  type  of  Christ  in 
regard  to  his  intercession,  see  Rev.  viii,  3 ;  as  the  altar  of 
burnt-offering  was  a  type  of  Christ  in  regard  to  the  other 
part  of  his  priestly  office,  his  oblation  or  satisfaction. 

The  inner  apartment,  called  the  Holy  of  Holies,  did  not 
contain  many  articles.  There  was  deposited  the  ark  of  the 
covenant,  a  chest  of  shittim-wood,  rather  more  than  thirty 
inches  in  breadth,  the  same  in  depth,  and  three  feet  and  a 
half  in  length.  It  was  covered  with  the  purest  gold,  with 
an  ornamented  border  on  the  top ;  on  each  side  were  two 
gold  rings  for  the  staves  by  which  it  was  carried,  and  which 
remained  in  them.  The  ends  of  these  staves  were  drawn 
out  so  far  as  to  touch  the  veil  which  separated  the  apart- 
ments. The  lid  of  the  ark  was  of  pure  gold,  ornamented 
with  two  figures  of  cherubim,  so  placed  that  their  faces 
turned  towards  each  other,  and  looked  downwards  towards 
the  ark.  Their  form  cannot  now  be  ascertained,  but  it  is 
supposed  to  have  been  something  like  the  representation 
usually  given.  The  wings  were  spread  to  form  a  sort  of 
seat ;  hence  the  lid  was  called  the  mercy-seat,  and  might  be 
considered  as  a  throne,  on  which  the  Shekinah,  or  Divine 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  163 

presence,  rested,  while  the  ark  itself  formed,  as  it  were,  the 
footstool.  There  was  nothing  in  the  ark  but  the  tables  of 
stone  on  which  the  ten  commandments  were  engraven.  By 
the  ark  stood  a  vase  of  gold,  which  contained  some  manna, 
also  the  rod  of  Aaron  which  budded,  and  a  copy  of  the 
books  of  Moses  containing  the  law.  Or,  the  manna  and  the 
rod  may  have  been  in  the  ark  when  placed  by  Moses  in  the 
tabernacle ;  but  these  articles  do  not  appear  to  have  been 
therein  when  it  was  placed  in  the  temple.  Perhaps  they 
had  been  taken  away  while  the  ark  was  in  the  hands  of  the 
Philistines,  or  at  some  other  time  during  the  period  of  con- 
fusion and  disorder  recorded  in  the  books  of  Judges  and 
1  Samuel.  Either  of  these  views  explains  the  apparent 
difference  between  Heb.  ix,  4,  and  2  Chron.  v,  10. 

Thus  the  tabernacle  gave  the  idea  of  a  noble  residence, 
and  the  various  articles  in  it  may  be  considered  as  the  requi- 
site articles  of  furniture ;  and  the  whole  was  intended  to 
convey  to  the  nation  the  idea  of  their  Ruler  residing  con- 
tinually among  them.  But  these  were  only  the  examples 
and  shadows  of  heavenly  things ;  and  the  sight  of  them 
profited  not,  unless  the  beholder  looked  beyond  them,  con- 
sidering what  they  signified.  They  are  expressly  spoken 
of  as  being  "  the  patterns  of  things  in  the  heavens,"  Heb. 
ix,  23  :  each  article  has  been  considered  as  having  reference 
to  some  spiritual  object ;  but  too  many  fanciful  applications 
have  been  made ;  the  minute  discussion  of  the  subject  of 
Scriptural  types  requires  much  sobriety  of  judgment.  Ma- 
ther, Worden,  and  M'Laurin  have  written  expressly  on  these 
subjects. 

The  materials  for  this  tabernacle  and  its  contents  were 
provided  by  the  people,  who  offered  according  to  their  re- 
spective abilities,  and  worked  for  it  in  various  ways.  So 
ready  were  they  on  this  occasion,  that  Moses  found  it  ne- 
cessary to  give  public  notice  that  enough  was  provided,  and 
that  no  more  articles  should  be  brought,  Exod.  xxxvi,  6. 
The  extent  of  these  offerings  will  appear,  when  it  is  stated, 
that  learned  men  compute  that  the  value  of  the  metals 
alone,  the  weight  of  which  is  recorded  Exod.  xxxviii,  24-29, 
would  amount  to  upwards  of  $1,000,000  of  our  money. 
The  articles  given  by  the  Egyptians  to  the  Israelites  when 
leaving  their  land,  and  those  taken  from  the  Amalekites, 
probably  supplied  a  large  portion  of  these  oflferings.     The 


164  JEWISH   NATION. 

readiness  of  the  Israelites  shows,  that  when  God  the  Holy 
Spirit  puts  his  grace  into  the  heart,  the  hands  will  be  dili- 
gently employed  in  the  Divine  service.  The  chief  directors 
of  the  work  were  Bezaleel  of  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  Aho- 
liab  of  the  tribe  of  Dan.  It  is  expressly  said  that  they 
were  Divinely  instructed  for  this  purpose,  Exod.  xxxv, 
31-35.  Thus,  when  God  requires  any  particular  services 
to  be  done,  he  will  find  out  or  make  persons  fit  and  able  to 
perform  them.  And  the  women,  who  spun  the  goats'  hair 
for  this  work,  are  said  to  be  wise-hearted,  as  well  as  the 
skillful  jewelers  and  goldsmiths  who  executed  the  most 
difficult  articles.  Surely  this  is  encouragement  for  all  to 
unite  in  the  work  of  God,  believing  that  a  man  is  accepted 
therein  according  to  the  ability  he  may  possess. 

A  particular  account  of  the  setting  up  and  consecrating 
the  tabernacle  is  given  in  Exod.  xl.  There  we  read  (verse 
34)  that  the  glory  of  the  Lord  filled  the  tabernacle.  This 
was  the  Shekinah,  or  manifestation  of  the  Divine  presence ; 
so  called  from  a  Hebrew  word,  which  signifies  to  inhabit  or 
dwell.  God  had  directed  that  the  tabernacle  or  sanctuary 
should  be  made,  that  he  might  dwell  among  the  people, 
Exod.  XXV,  8.  From  various  passages  in  Scripture,  the 
Shekinah  appears  to  have  been,  as  Josephus  describes  it, 
the  visible  form  of  a  flame,  most  hkely  very  shining  and 
glorious.  Whether  or  not  it  was  constantly  visible  in  the 
tabernacle  and  temple,  there  is  no  distinct  account ;  but  its 
entrance  into  the  temple  is  expressly  stated,  1  Kings  viii, 
10,  11,  and  its  departure  seems  to  be  spoken  of  in  Ezek. 
x,  18,  and  xi,  23.  The  Jewish  writers  relate  that  it  never 
appeared  in  the  second  temple.  Its  absence  from  that 
temple  where  the  Son  of  God  himself  appeared  in  human 
flesh,  is  a  proof  that  the  Shekinah  was  a  figurative  or  pro- 
phetical representation,  that  the  promised  Messiah  should 
appear  in  due  time.  "The  Word  was  made  flesh,  and  dwelt" 
(tabernacled,  or  shekinised)  "among  us,"  John  i,  14.  This 
was  expressly  prophesied,  Mai.  iii,  1 ;  Hag.  ii,  7. 

Another  manifestation  of  the  Divine  acceptance  of  their 
service  and  offerings  was  the  descent  of  fire.  Thus,  when 
Moses  and  Aaron  offered  the  sin-offerings,  "  there  came  out 
fire  from  before  the  Lord,  and  consumed  upon  the  altar  the 
burnt-offering  and  the  fat :  which  when  all  the  people  saw, 
they  shouted,  and  fell  on  their  faces,"  Lev,  ix,  24.     In  like 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  166 

manner  the  fire  descended  on  the  oflfering  of  Solomon, 
2  Chron.  vii,  1 ;  and  on  that  of  Elijah,  1  Kings  xviii,  38. 
The  acceptance  of  Gideon's  sacrifice  was  also  shown  by- 
miraculous  fire,  Judg.  vi,  21. 

In  Numbers  iv,  it  is  related  how  the  different  parts  of  the 
tabernacle,  and  the  articles  belonging  to  it,  were  carried, 
during  the  removals  of  the  Israelites  in  the  wilderness.  The 
priests,  Aaron  and  his  family,  covered  all  the  articles  before 
the  Levites  were  allowed  to  come  into  the  tabernacle  to  pre- 
pare for  the  removal.  The  coverings  showed  the  reverence 
due  to  the  holy  things,  and  also  that  mysterious  meanings 
were  intended  by  them.  That  dispensation  was  obscure 
and  dark,  compared  with  the  hght  of  the  gospel. 

When  the  Israelites  entered  the  land  of  Canaan,  the 
tabernacle  was  set  up  at  Gilgal,  where  they  first  encamped. 
It  remained  there  about  seven  years,  and  |,hen  was  removed 
to  Shiloh,  a  more  central  situation,  a  few  miles  north  of 
Jerusalem,  Josh,  iv,  19-;  xviii,  1.  Here  other  tents  and 
buildings  were  placed  round  the  tabernacle,  to  lodge  the" 
priests,  and  to  receive  various  articles  connected  with  the 
services.  Thus  EU's  sons  sent  to  the  kitchen  where  the 
peace-offerings  were  boiled,  (1  Sam.  ii,  14,)  and  this  explains 
how  Samuel  and  Eli  lay  down  near  the  taberaacle,  iii,  2.  3. 
Also  David's  going  into  the  house  of  God,  or  that  part  of  it 
where  the  priests  lived,  and  there  obtaining  the  shew-bread 
which  had  been  taken  from  the  holy  place,  1  Sam.  xxi. 
From  this  the  tabernacle  appears  to  have  been  fixed  at  Nob, 
some  time  after  the  death  of  Eli,  and  from  thence  was 
carried  to  Gibeon,  2  Chron.  i,  3.  It  is  to  be  remarked,  that 
as  Saul  slew  the  priests  of  the  Lord  before  the  tabernacle 
at  Nob,  and  ruined  that  place,  so  his  sons  were  hanged  up  at 
Gibeon,  whither  the  tabernacle  had  been  removed,  1  Sam. 
xxii,  18,  19 ;  2  Sam.  xxi,  9.  There  is  no  account  of  these 
removals,  nor  of  what  became  of  the  tabernacle  after  the 
temple  was  built.  The  ark  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
replaced  in  it  when  restored  by  the  Philistines.  Another 
building  was  reared  by  David  to  receive  the  ark,  when  it 
was  carried  to  Jerusalem,  2  Sam.  vi,  1*7. 


166  JEWISH  NATION. 

CHAPTER  VI. 
THE     TEMPL  E — I  TS     COURTS. 

There  is  an  account  of  the  origin  of  the  temple  in  2  Sam.  vii, 
and  1  Chron.  xvii,  and  how  David  was  permitted  to  form 
plans  for  the  temple,  and  to  collect  a  vast  quantity  of  ma- 
terials for  building  it,  though  not  himself  to  build  it.  All 
the  particulars  respecting  these  preparations  are  related  in 
2  Sam.  vii ;  1  Chron.  xvii ;  2  Sam.  xxiv ;  1  Chron.  xxi  to 
2  Chron.  vi ;  and  1  Ejngs  i  to  viii.  From  1  Chron.  xxvi,  28, 
it  is  clear  that  articles  had  been  dedicated  for  this,  or  a 
similar  purpose,  by  Samuel,  and  even  by  Saul,  also  by  Abner 
and  Joab.  Two  acoounts  are  there  given,  each  of  which 
contains  particulars  that  assist  in  explaining  the  other ;  and 
when  these  chapters  are  read  attentively,  the  reader  will 
have  a  full  idea  of  the  whole  proceeding. 

The  letter  of  Solomon  to  Hiram,  king  of  Tyre,  (2  Chron. 
ii,  3-10,)  contains  a  summary  of  his  reasons  for  buildmg 
the  temple — that  it  was  intended  to  facilitate  the  offering 
of  the  prescribed  sacrifices,  and  to  perpetuate  the  due  per- 
formance of  the  Mosaic  ritual.  He  expressly  rejected  the 
thought,  that  such  a  place  could  be  a  residence  for  Him 
whom  the  heaven  and  heaven  of  heavens  cannot  contain. 
The  prayer  of  Solomon  at  the  dedication  of  the  temple, 
(1  Kings  viii,  23-61,)  contains  the  most  exalted  ideas  of  the 
Supreme  Being,  and  carefully  does  away  any  supposition 
which  might  prevail,  of  Jehovah's  dwelling  in  a  house  made 
with  hands,  however  glorious,  although  he  vouchsafed  tokens 
of  his  immediate  presence  there,  in  the  midst  of  his  people. 
He  was  equally  ready  to  hear  "  from  heaven,  his  dwelling- 
place,"  the  supplications  presented  to  him,  whether  from 
that  house  or  from  a  land  of  captivity. 

The  temple  stood  upon  Mount  Moriah,  a  hard  lime-stone 
rock,  nearly  surrounded  by  precipices,  on  the  eastern  side 
of  Jerusalem.  The  summit  was  leveled  to  make  a  space 
sufficient  to  erect  it ;  and  as  the  extent,  even  then,  was  not 
large  enough  for  the  building  and  its  courts,  a  terrace  was 
raised  from  the  valley  beneath,  by  constructing  a  wall,  in 
some  places  several  hundred  feet  high.     But  much  of  the 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  167 

valley  has  been  filled  up,  during  the  two  thousand  five 
hundred  years  which  have  elapsed  since  the  building  was 
first  erected. 

Of  this  remarkable  site,  Lightfoot  says, — "  This  bank  was 
once  well  stored  with  bushes  and  brambles,  (Gen.  xxii,  13,) 
and  afterwards  with  worse  briers  and  thorns,  the  Jebusites, 
who  had  it  in  possession  till  David  purchased  it  for  Divine 
use,  and  built  the  structure  we  have  described.  Here  was 
then  a  poor  threshing-floor  of  Oman,  the  Jebusite,  but  after- 
wards the  habitation  of  the  God  of  Jacob ;  a  place  and  fabric 
as  sumptuous  and  eminent  as  it  was  possible  for  man,  and 
art,  and  cost,  to  make  it ;  the  glory  of  the  nation  where  it 
was,  and  the  wonder  of  all  the  nations  round  about  it ;  but 
at  last  as  great  a  wonder  and  monument  of  desolation  and 
ruin,  as  ever  it  had  been  of  beauty  and  glory." 

The  particulars  given  in  the  Bible,  and  those  related  by 
Jewish  writers,  show  that  the  plan  of  the  temple  was  similar 
to  that  of  the  tabernacle,  but  it  was  much  larger.  There 
were  also  similar  utensils  and  articles  for  the  sacred  services, 
but  some  were  larger  or  more  numerous.  The  superb  edi- 
fice constructed  by  Solomon,  consisted  of  the  Holy  Place 
and  a  Holy  of  Holies,  as  in  the  tabernacle ;  the  main  build- 
ing being  about  110  feet  long,  36  wide,  and  54  high.  This 
pile  was  surrounded  on  each  side,  except  the  entrance,  by 
three  stories  of  small  rooms,  about  eight  feet  square,  which 
reached  to  about  half  the  height  of  the  body  of  the  temple. 
The  east  end,  or  front,  was  a  magnificent  portico,  which 
rose  to  the  height  of  220  feet.  Thus  the  form  of  the  whole 
pile  would  not  be  unlike  that  of  some  ancient  churches, 
which  have  a  lofty  tower  in  front,  and  a  low  aisle  extending 
along  each  side  of  the  main  building.  The  principal  struc- 
ture was  surrounded  by  several  courts,  and  a  variety  of  other 
buildings,  some  of  which  are  mentioned  in  the  books  of 
Kings  and  Chronicles. 

The  daily  services  in  Solomon's  temple  are  briefly  stated 
by  Abijah,  in  his  remonstrance  to  Jeroboam  and  the  Israel- 
ites, 2  Chron.  xiii,  10,  11 ; — "The  priests,  which  minister 
unto  the  Lord,  are  the  sons  of  Aaron,  and  the  Levites  wait 
upon  their  business ;  and  they  bum  unto  the  Lord,  every 
morning  and  every  evening,  burnt  sacrifices  and  sweet  in- 
cense :  the  shew-bread  also  set  they  in  order  upon  the  pure 
table ;  and  the  candlestick  of  gold  with  the  lamps  thereof,  to 


168  JEWISH    NATION. 

bum  every  evening."  Thus  the  daily  services  of  Solomon's 
temple  were  the  same  as  those  of  the  tabernacle  ;  and  the 
Jewish  writers  show  that  the  same  services  were  continued 
after  the  captivity. 

This  beautiful  temple,  the  richest  and  most  highly  finished 
edifice  the  world  ever  saw,  continued  in  its  original  splen- 
dor only  about  thirty  years.  Shishak,  king  of  Egypt,  then 
took  Jerusalem,  and  plundered  the  temple.  Many  other 
circumstances  connected  with  its  history  are  recorded  in  the 
books  of  Kings  and  Chronicles,  and  it  was  burned  by  the 
Chaldeans,  when  it  had  stood  about  430  years.  See 
2  Kings  XXV,  13-16  ;  2  Chron.  xxxvi,  1*7-20. 

After  the  captivity,  one  of  the  first  cares  of  the  Jews 
who  returned  to  their  beloved  country,  was  to  rebuild  the 
temple.  Various  liindrances  and  delays  retarded  the  pro- 
gress. It  was  begun  by  Zerubbabel ;  but  their  means  were 
so  scanty,  that  the  aged  men  who  had  seen  the  first  house, 
wept  with  a  loud  voice  when  they  saw  the  new  foundations 
laid,  Ezra  iii,  12.  Yet  the  people  in  general  praised  the 
Lord  with  shouts  of  joy.  To  those  who  had  not  enjoyed 
the  divine  ordinances  in  their  greater  glory,  the  renewal  of 
these  services  was  felt  as  an  especial  blessing.  Let  us 
learn  hence,  that  the  day  of  small  things  is  not  to  be  de- 
spised, and  let  us  especially  be  thankful  for  the  great  mer- 
cies we  now  enjoy  as  to  the  worship  of  God. 

This  second  temple  stood  for  about  five  hundred  years, 
when,  being  much  decayed,  Herod  the  Great  undertook  to 
rebuild  it.  He  employed  18,000  workmen,  for  more  than 
nine  years,  in  the  work.  But,  although  at  that  time  the 
main  building  was  completed,  other  works  were  undertaken. 
The  courts  were  further  enlarged,  and  additional  buildings 
erected,  so  that,  in  our  Saviour's  time,  the  Jews  could  say, 
that  forty-six  years  had  passed  during  its  construction, 
John  ii,  20.  It  is  calculated  that  the  courts  were  suffi- 
ciently spacious  to  contain  more  than  half  a  million  of 
persons  at  the  same  time.  No  expense  was  spared  to 
render  this  temple  equal,  if  not  superior,  in  size,  as  well 
as  in  beauty  and  splendor,  to  anything  ever  seen  among 
mankind.  Of  this  pile,  including  several  courts,  and 
many  hundred  additional  apartments,  there  is  no  particular 
account  in  Scripture  ;  but  it  has  been  described  by  Jose- 
plms  and  other  Jewish  writers.     A  map,  or  ground  plan. 


RITES   AND   WORSHIP.  169 

is  given,  which  will  enable  the  reader  to  form  a  general 
idea  of  the  temple ;  but  it  would  have  been  useless  to  at- 
tempt to  insert  the  smaller  apartments  which  surrounded 
the  structure. 

The  principal  entrance  to  the  court  of  the  Gentiles,  the 
extent  and  situation  of  which  will  be  seen  on  reference  to  a 
plan  of  Jerusalem,  was  by  the  east  gate,  called  the  gate 
Shushan,  and  the  king's  gate.  The  first  name  is  said  to 
have  been  derived  from  a  representation  of  the  city  of  Shu- 
shan, in  Persia,  portrayed  upon  it,  to  remind  the  Jews  of 
their  captivity,  that  they  might  beware  of  again  falling  into 
idolatry :  and  also  to  remind  them  of  the  feast  of  Purim, 
established  in  that  city,  to  coiqamemorate  their  deliverance 
from  the  plot  of  Haman,  The  name  of  the  king's  gate  was 
to  remind  them  of  Solomon,  who  raised  the  foundation  from 
the  valley  beneath ;  the  piazza  on  that  side  of  the  court 
was  wider  than  on  the  others,  and  was  called  Solomon's 
porch.  There  our  Lord  walked  at  the  feast  of  dedication, 
(John  X,  23,)  when  the  Jews  were  about  to  cast  stones  at 
him ;  and  there  Peter  addressed  the  people  after  the  mi- 
raculous healing  of  the  lame  man.  Acts  iii,  11.  Josephus 
says,  that  no  one  could  look  down  from  the  flat  roof  of  this 
cloister  without  being  dizzy,  on  account  of  the  vast  depth 
of  the  valley  beneath.  At  the  south-east  comer  is  sup- 
posed to  have  been  the  pinnacle  from  whence  Satan  tempt- 
ed our  Saviour  to  cast  himself  dovra.  Matt,  iv,  6. 

After  passing  the  buildings  immediately  about  the  en- 
trance gate,  pens  or  folds  would  be  seen,  containing  cattle, 
sheep,  and  lambs.  At  this  gate  the  half  shekel,  as  directed, 
(Exod.  XXX,  13,)  was  collected  during  three  weeks  before  the 
passover,  and  there  sat  the  money-changers,  ready  to  sup- 
ply Jewish  coins  for  the  temple  dues,  and  the  purchase  of 
sacrifices,  to  persons  who  came  from  a  distance,  in  exchange 
for  foreign  money  :  thus  not  only  levying  a  tax  on  the  ne- 
cessities of  the  devout  visitor  of  the  temple,  but  making 
God's  house  a  place  of  me?-chandise.  It  is  probable  that 
the  ofl&cers  of  the  temple  let  these  standings  for  considerable 
sums,  to  compensate  for  which  the  sellers  made  an  unjust 
and  fraudulent  gain ;  therefore  our  Lord  called  the  place  a 
"  den  of  thieves."  There  were  also  small  shops  or  apart- 
ments for  the  regular  sale  of  wine,  oil,  meal,  and  other 
things,  which  were  used  with  the  sacrifices.     Our  Lord's 

8 


170  JEWISH  NATION. 

solemn  rebuke  of  this  conduct  is  well  known.  It  was  so 
manifestly  evil,  that  the  guilty  crowds  fled  before  Him  when 
they  heard  it. 

In  this  court,  often  called  by  the  Jews  "  the  mountain  of 
the  house,"  persons  from  all  nations  were  seen.  Many  de- 
vout Gentiles,  no  doubt,  entered  this  space,  desiring  there  to 
offer  supplications  to  the  God  of  Israel,  as  none  but  a  Jew 
might  approach  nearer  to  the  inner  courts  and  the  holy 
places.  But  how  must  the  feelings  of  the  pious  strangers 
have  been  outraged,  on  finding  the  inclosure  intended  ex- 
pressly for  their  use,  turned  into  a  cattle-market  and  an  ex- 
change !  Singular  to  relate,  there  was  a  long  time  when 
the  interior  of  St.  Paul's,  the  largest  place  for  worship  in 
London,  presented  much  such  a  scene.  During  part  of  the 
sixteenth  and  seventeenth  centuries,  the  main  building  was 
crowded  by  persons  who  resorted  to  it  for  buying,  and  sell- 
ing, and  hiring,  and  for  making  known  their  wants,  and  even 
for  disgraceful  and  wicked  purposes.  It  is  true,  that  God 
dwells  not  within  stone  walls,  and  that  there  can  be  no  holi- 
ness in  bricks  and  mortar ;  but  if  the  world  and  its  devices 
are  allowed  to  gain  a  settlement  within  the  house  dedicated 
to  Divine  worship,  it  will  be  even  more  difficult  than  it  is  at 
present,  to  prevent  the  intrusion  of  worldly  thoughts  during 
the  hours  set  apart  for  sacred  services. 

The  piazza,  or  covered  walk  which  surrounded  the  court, 
had  a  roof  supported  by  large  pillars  of  beautiful  white 
marble.  The  whole  is  computed  to  have  included  a  large 
level  space,  equal  to  four  acres  and  a  half,  paved  with  va- 
riegated marble.  In  the  north-west  comer  of  this  court 
was  an  ascent  to  the  tower  of  Antonia,  by  the  stairs  into 
that  castle,  from  whence  St.  Paul  addressed  the  people. 
Acts  xxi,  40. 

From  the  court  of  the  Gentiles  the  Jews  entered  by 
several  openings,  each  with  twelve  steps,  into  the  Hill,  or 
sacred  fence.  This  was  a  space  eighteen  feet  wide,  and 
nine  feet  above  the  court  which  surrounded  it.  A  wall  of 
lattice- work,  five  feet  high,  formed  the  outward  boundary ; 
and  at  each  entrance  were  posts  with  inscriptions  in  different 
languages,  forbidding  strangers  to  enter.  The  outcry  against 
Paul  was  first  excited  by  a  false  accusation,  that  he  had 
taken  a  Greek  beyond  this  boundary.  Acts  xxi,  2  7- -2 9. 
This  fence  is  evidently  alluded  to  by  the  same  apostle,  (Eph. 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP. 


171 


ii,  13,  14,)  when  he  speaks  of  Christ  as  "our  peace,"  who 
united  both  Jews  and  Gentiles  into  one  Church,  having  broken 
down  "  the  middle  wall  of  partition"  between  them. 

From  the  Hill,  the  Jew  passed  by  an  ascent  of  five  steps, 
into  the  court  of  the  women :  so  called,  because  this  was 
their  appointed  place  of  worship,  beyond  which  they  might 
not  pass,  unless  they  had  burnt-offerings  or  trespass-offerings 
to  present.  It  is  mentioned  by  different  names  in  Scripture, 
as  the  new  court,  2  Chron.  xx,  5  ;  the  outer  court,  Ezek. 
xlvi,  21 ;  the  treasury,  John  viii,  20.  The  eastern  gate  to 
this  court  was  the  beautiful  gate  mentioned,  Acts  iii,  2.  It 
was  so  named  from  being  overlaid  with  plates  of  Corinthian 
brass,  a  valuable  mixture  of  gold,  silver,  and  copper.  This 
court  contained  a  space  of  about  an  acre  and  a  half ;  it  was 
wholly  surrounded  by  buildings,  and  a  piazza  with  ranges 
of  galleries.  It  was  paved  with  marble,  and  had  three 
gates  besides  that  already  described.  In  each  comer  was  a 
smaller  court,  where  the  priests  boiled  the  sacrifices,  with 
buildings  for  different  purposes.  In  one  comer  the  Nazarites 
cut  off  their  hair.  In  another,  the  wood  intended  for  the 
altar  was  carefully  examined,  to  separate  any  pieces  that 
had  worms :  these  were  deemed  unfit  for  the  altar,  and  used 
for  inferior  purposes.  Another  was  for  the  reception  of 
cleansed  lepers :  and  in  the  fourth  were  stores  of  wine  and 
oil.  These  piles  of  buildings,  and  the  galleries  between 
them,  were  forty-five  feet  in  height.  In  this  court  also  were 
the  chests  for  receiving  the  offerings,  into  one  of  which  our 


172  JEWISH  NATION. 

blessed  Lord  saw  the  poor  widow  cast  her  two  mites. 
These  chests  were  thirteen  in  number,  each  for  a  different 
purpose.  Into  this  court  the  lame  man,  when  healed,  fol- 
lowed Peter  and  John ;  and  here  stood  the  proud  Pharisee, 
near  the  gate  leading  to  the  inner  court,  when  he  thanked 
God  that  he  was  not  as  other  men ;  while  the  poor  publican 
stood  in  a  remote  part,  offering  his  humble  petition.  This 
court  was  the  usual  place  of  worship  for  those  who  did  not 
bring  sacrifices  to  offer  on  the  altar.  It  is  probable  that 
many  offerings,  and  also  the  spoils  taken  by  Herod  from 
the  nations  he  conquered,  were  suspended  on  the  walls ; 
and  here  Agrippa  hung  up  the  golden  chain  given  him  by 
the  Roman  emperor,  Caligula,  as  a  memorial  of  the  iron 
chain  with  which  he  had  been  bound  by  Tiberius.  The 
offerings  were  visible  from  a  distance,  and  appear  to  have 
been  "  the  gifts"  pointed  out  to  our  Lord,  as  he  sat  with  his 
disciples  on  the  Mount  of  Olives,  Luke  xxi,  5. 

The  court  of  Israel  was  next.  The  ascent  to  this  was  by 
fifteen  steps,  the  pavement  being  about  thirteen  feet  higher 
than  the  court  of  the  women.  The  gate  tower  was  ninety 
feet  high,  and  richly  adorned.  Here  lepers  stood  while  the 
atonement  for  them  was  offered,  and  their  purification  com- 
pleted. Here  the  trial  of  bitter  waters  was  made.  And 
this  was  the  gate  described  by  Josephus,  so  heavy,  that  it 
could  hardly  be  shut  by  twenty  men ;  yet  opening  of  its  own 
accord  one  night,  some  years  before  the  destruction  of  Jeru- 
salem, though  barred  and  bolted :  an  omen  regarded  as  im- 
porting the  approaching  ruin  of  the  state. 

On  reference  to  the  plan,  it  will  be  seen  that  the  court  of 
Israel  surrounded  the  main  buildings  of  the  temple,  as  a 
frame  encompasses  a  picture.  It  was  only  about  fourteen 
feet  wide,  and  was  no  more  than  a  piazza,  under  which  the 
Israelites  stood  while  their  sacrifices  were  burning  on  the 
altar ;  probably  something  like  the  piazza  round  the  Royal 
Exchange  in  London,  but  the  centre  part  was  higher  than 
the  piazza,  for  the  pavement  of  the  court  of  Israel  was  about 
four  feet  below  the  level  of  that  of  the  court  of  the  priests, 
from  which  it  was  also  separated  by  an  open  railing.  On 
the  outer  side  it  was  separated  from  the  Hill  by  a  wall  and 
buildings,  probably  some  over  the  piazza  and  others  on  the 
outside,  but  the  precise  arrangement  cannot  be  ascertained, 
although  the  names  and  uses  of  many  of  the  apartments  are 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  173 

stated,  and  their  probable  situation  is  pointed  out  upon  the 
plan.  They  were  chiefly  used  for  the  accommodation  of  the 
priests  and  Levites,  for  baths  and  purifications,  and  for 
various  other  purposes  connected  with  the  offerings.  The 
eastern  side  appears  to  have  been  rather  wider  than  the 
others,  and  was  partly  appropriated  to  the  Levites,  who 
played  on  musical  instruments  and  sang  during  the  ser- 
vices. The  whole  area  of  this  court  was  less  than  half  an 
acre. 

The  court  of  the  priests  was  the  inner  division  of  the 
temple,  and  contained  about  an  acre  and  a  quarter,  which 
was  nearly  filled  by  the  building  of  the  temple  itself  and 
the  brazen  altar.  It  was  only  entered  by  the  Israelites  in 
general  when  they  ofifered  sacrifices ;  the  rule  was,  that 
they  came  in  at  the  north  or  south  sides,  and  returned  by  a 
different  gate  from  that  by  which  they  entered.  The  brazen 
altar  stood  exactly  on  the  site  of  the  threshing-floor  of 
Araunah.  It  was  much  larger  than  the  altar  in  the  taber- 
nacle. The  altar  of  Solomon  was  thirty-seven  feet  square ; 
that  erected  after  the  capti\aty  about  six  feet  larger ;  that  of 
Herod  was  sixty-two  feet  square  at  the  base,  and  forty-four 
at  the  top,  and  eighteen  feet  high.  A  cubit  on  the  south- 
east comer  was  cut  off;  the  boundary  line  between  the 
tribes  of  Judah  and  Benjamin  ran  there  ;  and,  from  a  fanci- 
ful application  of  Gen.  xlix,  27,  it  was  thought  that  no  part 
of  the  altar  should  be  in  the  former  tribe.  At  about  two 
feet  above  the  ground,  the  altar  was  narrowed  two  feet  on 
each  side,  and  about  nine  feet  higher  it  was  again  narrowed 
two  feet ;  on  these  two  ledges  the  priests  could  walk  round 
the  altar,  as  they  did  on  the  upper  of  these  ledges  when 
they  sprinkled  the  blood  of  the  sacrifices.  A  red  line  round 
the  altar,  at  half  the  height,  directed  the  priests  in  sprink- 
ling, which  was  done  in  some  cases  above,  and  in  others  be- 
low the  line.  If  any  blood  remained  when  they  had  com- 
pleted the  circuit,  it  was  poured  out  at  the  south-west  comer, 
through  two  holes  leading  to  a  conduit  or  pipe,  by  which 
the  blood  was  conveyed  to  the  brook  Kidron.  Higher  up 
was  another  ledge,  but  interrupted  by  the  columns  called 
the  horns  of  the  altar. 

In  the  temple  rebuilt  by  Herod,  the  altar  was  formed  of 
a  large  mass  of  stones  from  the  valley  of  Bit-kerim,  or  Beth- 
hacurim,  a  place  about  eight  miles  from  Jerusalem.     They 


174  JEWISH    NATION. 


LARGE  ALTAR  FOR  SACRIFICES. 

were  not  shaped ;  no  iron  tool  had  been  used  upon  them, 
Exod.  XX,  25  ;  but  they  were  cemented  together  with  mortar, 
pitch,  and  lead,  into  a  regular  form.  On  account  of  the 
number  of  sacrifices,  the  altar  was  washed  on  the  eve  of  the 
Sabbath,  and  whitened  at  the  passover  and  feast  of  taber- 
nacles. On  the  top  of  this  altar  three  fires  were  kept  con- 
stantly burning.  The  first  was  the  great  fire  for  the  sacri- 
fices ;  the  second,  a  small  fire  of  fig-tree  wood,  to  supply  the 
coals  taken  into  the  holy  place  to  bum  the  incense ;  the 
third,  another  small  fire,  to  rekindle  the  larger  fire  in  case 
it  should  go  out.  The  priest  went  up  by  an  inclined  plane, 
or  sloping  ascent  of  stone,  united  to  the  altar. 

This  altar  of  burnt-offering  was  sometimes  called  Ariel, 
or  the  lion  of  God,  from  the  number  of  animals  it  devoured, 
the  number  consumed  on  it  as  sacrifices.  Whatever  touched 
it  was  esteemed  holy,  and  there  was  no  other  altar  allowed 
in  the  land  of  Israel ;  thus  the  unity  of  God  was  symboh- 
cally  taught.  The  height  of  the  altar  itself,  added  to  the 
higher  ground  on  which  the  inner  court  stood,  would  render 
the  flames  that  consumed  the  sacrifice  partially  visible  to 
those  in  the  outer  courts,  and  thus  remind  them  of  the  great 
object  of  these  institutions. 

On  the  north  side  of  the  altar  were  twenty-four  rings, 
fixed  in  the  stones  of  the  pavement,  to  which  the  animals 


RITES  AND   AYORSHIP. 


175 


MOLTEN  SEA  AND  BRAZEN  OXEN. 

intended  for  sacrifices  were  fastened  when  slaughtered. 
Also  four  pillars  on  which  the  carcasses  were  suspended  to 
be  flayed,  and  eight  marble  tables  on  which  they  were 
washed  and  divided. 

In  the  first  temple  the  molten  sea,  or  brass  laver,  stood 
in  this  court ;  an  immense  vessel  of  metal,  nine  feet  deep, 
and  more  than  fifty  in  circumference.  Its  precise  shape  is 
not  known,  but  it  contained  from  12,000  to  20,000  gallons 
of  water. 

It  is  not  likely  that  the  oxen  on  which  it  stood,  (2  Chron. 
iv,  3,  4,)  were  fully  represented  as  here  ;  the  supports  pro- 
bably were  oval  masses  of  metal,  having  the  form  and 
something  of  the  appearance  of  the  head  of  an  ox. 

On  the  south  side  of  the  altar,  under  the  ascent,  was 
a  dark  recess,  where  the  ofFal  and  ashes  were  put  till  re- 
moved from  the  court,  and  a  closet  for  birds  that  were  found 
unfit  for  sacrifices.  On  the  side  of  the  ascent  was  a  table 
of  silver,  for  vessels  and  utensils  ;  and  one  of  marble,  on 
which  were  placed  the  pieces  of  the  sacrifices,  before  they 
were  carried  up  to  the  altar.  Below  the  ascent  on  the 
south  side,  the  less  holy  sacrifices  were  killed,  when  the 
whole  were  too  numerous  to  be  slaughtered  on  the  north 
side. 

Between  the  altar  and  the  porch  was  a  space  about  forty 
feet  in  width,  considered  particularly  sacred.  None  might 
enter  it  who  were  maimed  or  deformed,  nor  any  persons 


176  JEWISH  NATION. 

with  their  heads  uncovered;  for,  contrary  to  European 
customs,  that  was  a  sign  of  irreverence :  nor  durst  any 
enter  it  with  unwashen  hands  and  feet,  or  if  excited  by 
wine.  'No  one  might  remain  in  this  space  while  the  high 
priest  was  burning  the  daily  incense  in  the  holy  place, 
nor  when  he  went  into  the  most  holy  place  once  a  year, 
with  the  blood  of  the  sin-offering.  This  may  remind  us. 
that  no  one  is  able  to  take  part  with  Christ  in  his  interces- 
sion for  his  Church,  in  that  intercession  which  was  figured 
by  the  offering  of  incense,  and  sprinkling  blood  on  the 
mercy-seat.  And  thus  there  is  an  emblem,  that  human 
merit  cannot,  in  any  degree,  be  the  ground  of  our  justifi- 
cation. In  this  space  the  priests,  the  ministers  of  the  Lord, 
wept  and  prayed  on  the  days  appointed  for  public  fasting 
and  national  humiliation,  Joel  ii,  17.  As  this  space  was  so 
sacred,  how  daring  the  blasphemous  conduct  of  the  idola- 
ters, whom  Ezekiel  (viii,  16)  saw  between  the  porch  and  the 
altar,  worshiping  the  sun,  with  their  faces  towards  the 
east,  and  their  backs  to  the  temple  !  Here  also  Zacharias, 
the  son  of  Barachias,  was  murdered,  Matt,  xxiii,  35  ;  the 
atrocity  of  the  crime  being  increased  by  the  place  where  it 
was  committed. 

In  this  place  was  the  megeruphita,  apparently  a  large 
vessel  of  sonorous  metal,  which  was  struck  at  certain  times, 
to  give  signals  for  the  performance  of  various  duties.  Also 
the  laver,  in  which  the  priests  washed  before  they  entered 
on  their  duties.  In  the  last  temple  there  was  only  one 
laver  ;  its  size,  and  the  material  of  which  it  was  made,  are 
not  mentioned,  but  it  was  filled  afresh  every  day.  On  one 
side  of  this  court  was  a  room  which  contained  a  draw-well ; 
or  rather  a  wheel,  by  which  water  was  drawn  up  from  a 
very  large  cistern,  or  reservoir.  The  quantity  of  water  used 
in  the  temple  was  very  great,  both  for  the  personal  use  of 
the  priests,  and  for  cleansing  the  courts,  which  after  many 
sacrifices  needed  a  considerable  quantity  to  wash  the  pave- 
ment. Aristeas  describes  this  supply  as  being  brought 
more  than  half  a  mile,  in  pipes,  under-ground,  Being  raised 
by  this  wheel,  the  water  was  easily  supplied  to  the  baths, 
and  other  places  where  it  was  needed.  There  were  many 
vents,  or  holes  in  the  pavement,  through  which  the  waste 
water  and  washings  were  conveyed,  by  under-ground  chan- 
nels, to  the  brook  Kidron.     Some  traces  of  these  reservoirs 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  177 

under  the  temple  have  been  found  and  described  by  recent 
travelers.  They  formed  part  of  a  vast  subterranean  struc- 
ture beneath  the  temple,  much  of  which  still  remains, 
but  has  not  been  fully  explored.  The  original  limestone 
rock  has  been  very  clearly  traced,  and  various  excavated 
chambers  have  been  examined.  Different  conjectures  have 
been  formed  respecting  their  date.  Some  appear  to  have 
been  of  the  date  of  the  temple  built  by  Herod,  from  their 
resemblance  to  the  erections  of  that  period ;  while  others 
of  a  different  description  have  been  attributed  to  the  time 
of  Solomon ;  and  it  is  certain  that  the  rocky  foundation  is 
the  same  that  it  was  in  his  days,  though  probably  the  arched 
or  vaulted  chambers  under  ground  may  belong  to  a  later 
period,  when  the  bridge  was  erected  between  the  temple 
and  Mount  Zion.  "  To  whatever  age,"  says  Bartlett,  "  we 
may  refer  the  erection  of  the  bridge,  it  undoubtedly  existed 
at  the  time  of  the  advent  of  Christ.  At  that  time  it  was 
often  crowded  with  the  noble  and  wealthy  of  the  land,  on 
their  way  from  the  proud  palaces  of  the  upper  city  to  the 
house  of  God.  What  a  contrast  is  presented  by  its  present 
state  !  the  bridge  broken  down,  the  Jews  shut  out  from  the 
holy  and  beautiful  house  of  their  fathers,  and  the  slopes  of 
Zion  himg  with  mean  and  ruinous  houses,  the  abodes  of 
poverty  and  wretchedness." 


CHAPTER  Vn. 

THE  TEMPLE — THE  HOLY  PLACES — PRESENT  STATE  OF 
THE  SITE. 

The  pile  of  building  containing  the  temple  itself,  as  recon- 
structed by  Herod,  was  much  larger,  and  in  some  respects 
differed  in  form  from  that  of  Solomon,  already  described. 
The  east  front  or  porch  was  180  feet  long,  and  218  high 
in  the  centre  ;  but  lower  on  each  side,  and  contained  many 
apartments.  It  had  a  flat  roof  surrounded  with  battle- 
ments. The  body  of  the  temple  behind  this  was  narrower, 
so  that  the  whole  was  in  the  form  of  the  letter  T.  This 
porch  was  entered  by  twelve  steps,  each  nearly  eleven 
inches  high,  and  of  different  widths,  but  extending  almost 
to  the  altar.  Thus  the  whole  elevation  of  the  threshold  of 
8* 


178  JEWISH  NATION. 

the  porch  above  the  court  of  the  Gentiles  was  more  than 
forty  feet.  The  porch  was  about  thirty-nine  feet  across, 
from  the  threshold  of  the  holy  place,  including  the  thick- 
ness of  the  walls.  The  entrance  to  the  porch  was  a  large 
opening,  more  than  seventy  feet  high,  and  half  as  wide. 
It  had  no  doors,  but  stood  always  open.  Josephus  says 
this  was  intended  to  be  emblematical  of  heaven — always 
open  to  the  prayer  of  the  believer.  In  the  porch  of  Solo- 
mon's temple  stood  the  two  pillars,  called  Jachin  and 
Boaz.  In  that  of  Herod's  temple  was  a  golden  vine 
richly  wrought,  the  bunches  of  grapes  as  large  as  a  man  ;  it 
was  continually  increased  in  size,  some  persons  giving  a  leaf 
or  a  grape,  others  more. 

The  entrance  to  the  holy  place  was  through  a  wall  ele- 
ven feet  thick.  A  door  of  two  leaves  was  hung  next  to  the 
porch,  and  another  next  to  the  holy  place ;  each  opened 
inwards.  The  priest,  whose  business  it  was  to  open  and 
shut  these  doors,  first  passed  through  a  wicket  in  the  outer 
door,  then  entered  the  holy  place  through  a  small  opening 
in  the  wall,  exactly  where  one  of  the  leaves  of  the  inner 
door  fell  back  against  the  wall  when  opened.  He  then 
unclosed  the  large  leaves  of  the  doors.  Those  of  the  outer 
door,  being  richly  adorned,  formed  ornamental  sides  to  the 
entrance.  In  this  entrance  was  a  marble  slab,  which  could 
be  lifted  by  a  ring  fastened  in  it.  From  a  cavity  under- 
neath this,  the  priest  took  the  dust  used  in  the  trial 
by  the  bitter  water.  Num.  v,  IV.  We  may  here  observe, 
that  the  proceedings  of  that  trial,  as  originally  directed, 
were  simple,  solemn,  and  considerate  towards  both  parties ; 
but,  in  later  times,  many  circumstances  of  unkindness  to- 
wards the  woman  were  added  to  the  ceremonial,  rather 
showing  a  determination  to  prejudge  the  case  against  the 
accused,  than  leaving  the  result  to  the  Most  High. 

When  the  doors  of  the  holy  place  were  opened,  the  en- 
trance was  closed  by  a  veil  richly  wrought.  Veils  were 
also  hung  in  the  gates  of  the  court  of  Israel,  and  in  the 
gateway  of  the  porch. 

The  holy  place,  at  the  time  our  Saviour  was  upon  earth, 
was  not  only  larger,  but  more  lofty  than  that  of  Solo- 
mon ;  the  flooring  and  the  sides  were  covered  with  gold, 
and  richly  wrought  with  carved-work,  probably  flowers, 
palm-trees,   and  cherubim.      In  each  temple  there  was  a 


RITES  AND  .WORSHIP.  179 

range  of  windows  near  the  roof,  above  the  chambers  at  the 
sides  of  the  building.  A  candlestick  for  the  lamps,  a  table 
for  the  shew-bread,  and  a  golden  altar  for  incense,  stood  in 
the  holy  place  of  each  temple,  as  in  that  of  the  tabernacle. 
When  Jerusalem  was  destroyed  by  Titus,  a  priest  named 
Joshua,  or  Jesus,  preserved  the  first  two  articles,  and  deli- 
vered them  to  the  conqueror,  who  had  them  carried  in  his 
triumphal  procession,  and  deposited  them  in  the  Temple  of 
Peace  at  Rome.  The  table  and  the  candlestick  are  repre- 
sented among  the  sculptures  with  which  the  triumphal 
arch  of  Titus,  in  that  city,  is  adorned.  Very  frequent  use 
was  made  of  the  trumpets  in  the  temple  services.  In 
Num.  X,  10,  "  In  the  day  of  your  gladness,  and  in  your 
solemn  days,  and  in  the  beginnings  of  your  months,  ye  shall 
blow  with  the  trumpets  over  your  burnt-offerings,  and  over 
the  sacrifices  of  your  peace-offerings ;  that  they  may  be  to 
you  for  a  memorial  before  your  God  :"  and  they  were 
introduced  into  the  temple  services,  2  Chron.  v,  13 ; 
xxix,  27.  In  later  times,  the  rule  was,  that  not  more  than 
one  hundred  and  twenty,  nor  less  than  two  trumpets,  were 
to  be  blown  on  any  occasion  of  sacrifice. 

In  the  temple  of  Solomon,  the  Holy  of  Hohes,  or  Most 
Holy  Place,  was  separated  from  the  outer  apartment  by 
folding-doors  of  olive-wood,  gilded  and  richly  ornamented. 
In  the  second  temple  there  were  no  doors,  but  two  veils 
instead,  exceedingly  thick  and  strong,  being  of  blue,  purple, 
scarlet,  and  white  twined  linen  yarn,  some  say  of  woolen 
yam;  each  thread  sixfold,  and  woven  upon  hair  warp, 
seventy-two  hairs  to  each  thread.  Though  two  veils  in 
number,  they  are  spoken  of  as  one,  both  in  Scripture  and 
by  Josephus,  as  they  formed  one  partition.  These  veils 
were  rent  asunder,  from  the  top  to  the  bottom,  at  our  Sa- 
viour's death,  which  signified  that  the  mysteries  of  the 
Jewish  dispensation  were  then  to  be  revealed  and  to  pass 
away ;  and  that  the  way  of  access  to  God  was  opened, 
Christ  having  entered  for  us  into  the  holy  place  not  made 
with  hands:  see  Heb.  ix,  7;  x,  19.  Having  overcome  the 
sharpness  of  death,  he  opened  the  kingdom  of  heaven  to 
believers ;  and  there  is  nothing  now  to  hinder,  but  every- 
thing to  encourage,  our  direct  access  to  God  upon  his  mercy- 
seat. 

It  is  thought  that  the  most  holy  place  in  the  temple  was 


180  JEWISH  NATION. 

about  four  times  the  size  of  that  in  the  tabernacle ;  the 
length,  breadth,  and  height  each  being  doubled.  In  Solo- 
mon's temple,  the  floor  and  ceiling  were  of  cedar,  overlaid 
with  gold;  the  walls  of  cedar,  carved  with  palm-trees, 
cherubim,  and  flowers  covered  with  gold ;  and  doubtless 
they  were  very  magnificent  in  the  temples  of  Zerubbabel 
and  Herod.  Here  was  no  window.  The  glory  of  the  Lord 
had  been  its  light  when  the  Shekinah  appeared ;  at  other 
times  it  was  in  darkness.  In  Solomon's  temple,  the  ark  of 
the  covenant  was  placed  here ;  but  when  he  deposited  it, 
the  golden  pot  with  manna  and  Aaron's  rod  appear  to  have 
been  lost,  or  perhaps  they  were  placed  near,  but  not  within 
it,  for  it  only  contained  the  tables  of  stone,  2  Chron.  v,  10. 
The  copy  of  the  law  (see  Deut.  xxxi,  26)  probably  also  was 
deposited  by  its  side,  which  was  found  by  Hilkiah,  in  the 
days  of  Josiah,  2  Chron.  xxxiv,  14.  The  ark,  doubtless, 
perished  when  the  temple  was  destroyed  by  Nebuchadnez- 
zar, but  a  copy  of  it  was  made  for  the  latter  temples.  The 
Jews  have  a  tradition  that  the  original  ark  was  concealed 
by  Jeremiah,  and  will  be  found  hereafter.  No  human  in- 
genuity, however,  could  bring  again  the  Shekinah,  the  cloud 
of  glory,  over  the  mercy-seat,  or  the  spirit  of  prophecy. 
The  urim  and  thummim,  and  the  fire  kindled  from  heaven, 
also  were  wanting,  as  well  as  the  original  ark.  In  all  these 
respects  the  Jews  admit  that  the  latter  temple  was  inferior 
to  that  of  Solomon. 

In  one  respect  the  glory  of  the  latter  house  exceeded 
that  of  the  former.  Hag.  ii,  7-9  is  here  adverted  to.  In 
the  latter  temple  appeared  "  the  Desire  of  all  nations,"  the 
Messiah,  the  Son  of  God  when  manifest  in  the  flesh.  And 
this  prophetic  declaration,  preserved  by  the  Jews  them- 
selves, is  one  of  the  strong  proofs  of  Scripture  that  Jesus 
was  the  Messiah,  since  to  no  other  person  did  this  descrip- 
tion apply ;  and  as  that  temple  has  long  since  ceased  to 
exist,  it  cannot  now  be  applied  to  any  other. 

The  glorious  appearance  presented  by  this  inner  pile  of 
building  is  described  by  Josephus.  "  To  strangers  who 
were  approaching,  it  appeared  at  a  distance  like  a  mountain 
covered  with  snow ;  for  where  it  was  not  decorated  with 
plates  of  gold,  it  was  extremely  white  and  glistening."  On 
the  top  were  pointed  spikes  of  gold,  to  prevent  any  birds 
from  resting  upon  the  building  and  polluting  it.     He  de- 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  181 

scribes  some  stones  in  that  structure  as  more  than  eighty- 
feet  long,  nine  high,  and  eleven  wide.  Well  might  the 
disciples  exclaim,  "Master,  see  what  manner  of  stones, 
and  what  buildings  are  here!"  Mark  xiii,  1;  and  be  sur- 
prised at  our  Saviour's  declaration,  that  not  one  of  these 
stones  should  be  left  upon  another,  and  that  this  destruc- 
tion should  come  to  pass  before  that  generation  had  ceased 
to  exist.  But  it  was  the  declaration  of  Him  who  is  Truth 
itself :  it  was  fulfilled,  as  every  other  of  his  words  has  been 
or  shall  be.  Heaven  and  earth  shall  pass  away,  but  his 
words  shall  not  pass  away. 

The  description  of  the  latter  temple  is  now  nearly 
finished.  Along  the  sides,  and  at  the  west  end  of  the  main 
building  of  the  temple,  were  thirty-eight  chambers  in  three 
stories.  These  were  chiefly  used  as  store-houses,  for  laying 
up  the  sacred  utensils,  and  the  olBFerings  made  for  the  sus- 
tenance of  the  priests  and  the  services  of  the  altar.  Over 
these  chambers  was  a  flat  terrace,  to  which  persons  could 
ascend  by  a  staircase  at  the  north-east.  Two  rooms  over 
the  holy  places  were  entered  from  the  south-west  corner  of 
this  terrace,  by  an  ascent  of  steps  eighteen  feet  high.  The 
floor  of  these  rooms  being  that  height  above  the  terrace, 
allowed  space  for  the  windows  which  lighted  the  holy  place. 
The  rooms  were  of  the  same  length  as  the  holy  places  be- 
low them;  and  two  cedar-trees,  laid  sloping,  as  inclined 
planes,  led  from  them  to  the  top  of  the  temple.  The  use 
of  these  rooms  is  not  clearly  stated.  From  the  one  over 
the  most  holy  place,  workmen  were  let  down  through  trap- 
doors to  repair  or  clean  the  walls. 

At  the  north-west  corner  of  the  inner  court  was  a  large 
apartment  called  the  fire-room,  where  a  fire  was  kept  con- 
stantly burning  in  cold  weather  and  at  night.  Here  the 
priests  in  attendance,  who  were  not  posted  as  sentinels,  re- 
mained during  the  night.  It  was  a  sort  of  guard-room  to 
the  temple ;  and  they  slept  in  their  clothes,  on  benches 
placed  round  the  room.  The  buildings  in  the  several  courts 
have  already  been  noticed,  as  containing  a  vast  number  of 
apartments,  but  the  particulars  are  too  uncertain  to  justify 
any  attempt  at  describing  them. 

The  whole  extent  occupied  by  the  courts  and  buildings 
is  estimated  at  somewhat  more  than  nineteen  acres.  A 
large  part  of  the  ground  beneath  the  surface,  it  is  said,  was 


182  JEWISH  NATION. 

excavated  and  arched,  to  prevent  the  possibility  of  pol- 
lution from  any  secret  graves:  thus  repositories  for  va- 
rious purposes  were  also  supphed,  and  for  the  water 
reservoirs. 

An  Arabian  historian  relates,  that  when  the  caliph  Omar 
took  Jerusalem,  he  inquired  of  the  patriarch  for  a  proper 
place  to  build  a  mosque,  and  was  conducted  to  the  site  of 
Solomon's  temple.  Subsequent  caliphs  added  to  the  build- 
ings, and  inclosed  the  rock  with  walls.  The  Crusaders 
used  it  for  a  place  of  Christian  worship  ;  but  the  sultan 
Saladin  restored  it  to  the  former  use,  and  it  has  ever  since 
continued  to  be  a  Mohammedan  mosque.  This  application 
of  the  spot  has  prevented  it  from  being  crowded  with  com- 
mon buildings,  and  the  remembrance  of  the  site  has  thus 
been  preserved  to  the  present  day. 

Belzoni  found  means,  a  few  years  since,  in  the  disguise 
of  a  Turk,  to  obtain  a  hasty  and  superficial  view  of  this 
building  and  the  court  around  it,  while  some  repairs  were 
going  forward ;  and  Dr.  Richardson,  having,  by  his  medical 
skill,  gained  the  favor  of  the  Turkish  ecclesiastical  authori- 
ties, obtained  permission,  in  1821,  to  visit  this  mosque,  dis- 
guised as  a  Turk.  He  has  given  a  minute  description  of 
the  buildings  within  the  inclosure,  which  he  was  told  is 
about  one  thousand  four  hundred  and  eighty-nine  feet  long, 
by  nine  hundred  and  ninety-five  feet  wide ;  but,  as  these 
are  wholly  of  Turkish  origin,  they  have  no  reference  to  our 
present  subject.  Other  travelers  have  also  gained  admit- 
tance. Among  other  objects  of  attention  is  a  stone  on  the 
top  of  the  wall,  impending  over  a  tremendous  precipice,  on 
which  the  Turks  believe  that  Mohammed  is  to  sit  at  the  day 
of  judgment,  and  to  judge  the  re-embodied  spirits,  which 
will  then,  as  they  believe,  be  assembled  beneath  in  the  val- 
ley of  Jehoshaphat. 

Perhaps,  among  all  the  considerations  which  have  refer- 
ence to  the  temple,  none  is  more  affecting  than  the  extreme 
veneration  of  the  Jews  for  that  pile  of  building.  Some  of 
the  Psalms  which  were  composed  during  the  Babylonish 
captivity  strongly  evidence  this ;  and  there  are  several  in- 
stances of  it  in  the  Old  Testament.  Afterwards  this  feeling 
was  heightened  to  superstitious  regard.  The  law  required 
solemn  and  holy  conduct  in  all  who  approached  the  courts 
of  the  Lord  to  worship  therein,  and  persons  were  excluded 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  183 

under  some  circumstances  of  ceremonial  uncleanness ;  but 
the  Jewish  rabbis  added  many  other  restrictions.  Weapons 
of  offense  were  rightly  excluded  from  the  house  of  God, 
and  no  man  might  enter  it  even  with  a  staff.  This  was  to 
teach  that,  in  their  worship,  it  was  not  right  to  lean  on  any 
staff  but  God ;  and  it  accounts  for  our  Saviour  making  and 
using  a  whip  of  small  cords  to  drive  out  the  buyers  and 
sellers,  as  a  staff  was  not  allowed  in  the  courts  even  for 
driving  the  cattle.  None  were  to  enter  with  shoes,  or  with 
dust  on  their  feet ;  nor  was  it  lawful  for  the  worshipers  to 
have  money  about  them,  yet  we  find  tables  of  money- 
changers placed  there !  None  were  to  make  the  courts  a 
thoroughfare,  or  to  use  any  irreverent  gesture;  spitting 
was  absolutely  forbidden.  While  attending  the  service,  the 
worshiper  was  to  stand  with  his  feet  even,  his  eyes  cast 
downwards,  and  his  hands  crossed.  However  weary,  he 
must  not  sit  down  in  the  court  of  the  Israehtes,  nor  in  that 
of  the  priests.  When  they  departed,  they  were  to  go  back- 
ward till  they  had  left  the  inner  court  where  the  altar  stood, 
and  must  not  quit  the  temple  by  the  same  gate  through 
which  they  entered.  These  scruples  entertained  after  the 
captivity,  strongly  contrast  with  the  neglect,  and  worse 
than  neglect,  manifested  towards  the  building  during  the 
reigns  of  the  idolatrous  kings  of  Judah.  The  anathemas 
and  penalties  denounced  against  any  one  who  should  enter 
the  courts  of  the  temple,  while  ceremonially  unclean,  were 
most  severe. 

The  least  slight  towards  the  temple,  real  or  supposed, 
excited  the  bitterest  rage  of  a  Jew.  Not  to  mention  Paul 
and  Stephen,  there  is  the  strongest  instance  of  this  in  the 
case  of  our  blessed  Lord.  The  rulers  of  the  Jews  seized 
upon  an  expression  uttered  by  him  some  years  before,  (John 
xi,  19,  20,)  and,  misrepresenting  his  words,  gave  them  the 
semblance  of  disrespect  to  the  temple,  when  they  had  in 
vain  sought  for  any  other  ground  of  accusation  which  might 
influence  the  people,  Mark  xiv,  55-58.  The  mere  assertion, 
though  not  well  supported,  that  Jesus  had  been  heard  to 
declare  he  was  able  to  destroy  the  temple,  was  considered 
as  impious  guilt,  too  great  to  be  forgiven.  And  when  ex- 
piring on  the  cross  under  this  charge,  the  same  people  who, 
a  few  days  before,  had  hailed  Jesus  of  Nazareth  as  the  son 
of  David,  viewed  him  with  scorn,  and  taunted  him  with 


184  JEWISH  NATION. 

the  words  they  supposed  him  to  have  spoken,  Matt,  xxvii, 
39,  40. 

The  same  typical  meaning  may  be  apphed  to  the  temple 
as  to  the  tabernacle  ;  and  as  it  was  supported  by  a  strong 
foundation,  it  may  further  remind  us  of  the  sure  Foundation, 
even  Christ  Jesus,  that  only  Foundation,  in  reference  to 
whom  the  inspired  apostle  declared,  "  If  any  man's  work 
abide  which  he  hath  built  thereupon,  he  shall  receive  a  re- 
ward," 1  Cor.  iii,  14.  And  let  us  remember,  that  the 
tabernacle  and  the  temple,  in  their  typical  and  figurative 
meaning,  were  as  maps  of  the  gospel-land  we  now  inhabit. 
They  represented  by  shadows,  or  at  best  through  a  glass 
darkly,  truths  now  clearly  set  before  us.  It  has  been  said 
the  glories  of  that  blessed  country  then  could  only  be  faintly 
discerned  through  the  smoke  of  the  sacrifices ;  now  the  fruit- 
ful fields,  and  refreshing  streams,  and  rich  prospects  of  that 
heavenly  Canaan,  are  clearly  revealed. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  LEVITES— THE  PRIESTS— THE  HIGH  PRIEST. 

The  ritual  services  of  the  Mosaic  dispensation  required  a 
number  of  persons,  whose  time  should  be  devoted  to  the 
due  performance  of  the  ceremonials.  The  main  principle 
also  of  that  dispensation  required  ministers  of  various  ranks 
and  gradations,  suitable  to  the  splendor  of  that  peculiar,  or 
national  worship,  which  recognized  the  presence  of  Jehovah, 
dwelling  among  them  as  a  monarch  in  his  palace.  The 
variety  also  of  the  ofiferings,  and  the  precision  with  which 
the  attendant  ceremonies  were  to  be  performed,  demanded 
constant  practice,  as  well  as  clear  instruction  in  the  first  in- 
stance. All  this  was  provided  for  by  the  selection  of  one 
whole  family  or  tribe,  whose  entire  attention  should  be  de- 
voted to  sacred  things.  Here  was  an  important  change 
from  the  system  of  the  patriarchal  dispensation,  when  the 
head  of  the  family  offered  sacrifices,  and  conducted  the  wor- 
ship of  those  under  his  charge,  and  the  eldest  son  assisted 
in  preparing  and  slaying  the  sacrifices,  and  succeeded  to 
the  sacred  duties,  in  addition  to  the  authority  as  ruler  of 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  185 

the  family.  Esau,  when  he  despised  his  birth-right,  and 
sold  it  for  a  mess  of  pottage,  (Gen.  xxv,  34,)  gave  up  his 
right  to  officiate  in  these  holy  services.  Hence  he  is  spoken 
of  by  the  apostle  (Heb.  xii,  16,  17)  as  a  profane  person. 

There  is  another  reason  for  this  selection  of  one  tribe  to 
wait  at  the  altar,  Num.  iii,  13  :  "  Because  all  the  first-bom 
are  mine ;  for  on  the  day  that  I  smote  all  the  first-bom  in 
the  land  of  Egypt  I  hallowed  unto  me  all  the  first-born  in 
Israel,  both  man  and  beast."  From  the  context  we  leara, 
that  God,  having  appointed  Aaron  and  his  family  to  be  the 
priests  under  the  new  dispensation,  gave  them  the  whole 
tribe  of  Levi,  to  which  Aaron  belonged,  to  assist  in  the 
ritual  services,  instead  of  the  eldest  child  of  every  family  in 
Israel.  The  advantages  of  such  an  arrangement  are  ob- 
vious. And  the  waiting  on  the  priest's  office  was  not  the 
only  service  for  which  the  Levites  were  set  apart.  They 
were  to  diffuse  religious  and  moral  instmction  throughout 
the  nation.  This  has  been  already  noticed.  In  the  last 
solemn  discourse  of  Moses,  he  speaks  thus  of  the  double 
service  of  the  tribe  of  Levi,  addressing  himself  to  the  Most 
High :  "  Let  thy  Urim  and  thy  Thummim  be  with  thy  holy 
one ;  they  have  observed  thy  word  and  kept  thy  covenant ; 
they  shall  teach  Jacob  thy  judgments,  and  Israel  thy  law ; 
they  shall  put  incense  before  thee,  and  whole  burat-sacrifice 
upon  thine  altar."  Another  solemn  injunction  respecting 
public  instruction  had  previously  been  given,  Deut.  xxxi, 
10-13. 

All  the  institutions  respecting  this  tribe  were  calculated 
to  give  them  weight  and  influence  in  Israel,  which,  provided 
they  acted  according  to  the  Divine  injunctions,  would  be 
eminently  beneficial.  The  law,  or  word  of  God,  was  com- 
mitted to  them,  that  they  might  study  its  contents,  and  be 
able  to  instruct  the  people  in  all  its  requirements.  They 
were  relieved  from  secular  cares.  Their  habitations  were 
not  confined  to  one  district.  They  had  cities  in  every  tribe, 
but  were  relieved  from  the  labor  and  care  of  cultivating  the 
ground.  The  tenth  part  of  the  produce  of  the  soil,  and 
portions  of  many  of  the  offerings,  were  allotted  for  their 
sustenance,  Num.  xviii,  24  ;  Deut.  xiv,  29.  Thus,  as  Graves 
obsei-ves,  "  deriving  their  maintenance  from  a  source  which 
would  necessarily  fail  if  the  worship  and  laws  of  God  were 
neglected,  they  were  deeply  interested  in  their  support." 


186  JEWISH  NATION. 

Being  especially  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  Divine  law, 
which  was  a  code  of  moral  justice,  as  well  as  of  religious 
worship,  they  must  have  possessed  considerable  influence 
over  the  people.  They  were  everywhere  at  hand,  ready  to 
admonish  and  instruct.  No  others  were  admitted  to  dis- 
charge any  sacred  office,  and  even  the  administration  of 
justice  necessarily  Called  for  their  assistance.  From  Deut. 
xvii,  9,  and  xix,  17,  it  appears  that  a  connection  between 
the  tribe  of  Levi  and  the  judicial  office  was  designed  to 
exist.  They  also  had  the  care  of  the  pubhc  records  and 
genealogies.  The  express  mention  of  the  Levite  (Deut. 
xxvi,  11)  may  imply  the  residence  of  this  tribe  among  other 
famiUes ;  and  the  history  of  Micah  and  the  Danites  shows 
that  the  presence  of  a  Levite  in  a  family  or  community  was 
much  desired ;  also,  that  persons  of  that  tribe  were  accus- 
tomed to  go  forth  from  their  cities  to  seek  places  where 
they  might  be  received,  Judg.  xvii,  8,  13.  But  the  office 
of  instructor  was  not  exclusively  confined  to  the  Levites, 
whose  primary  duties  were  those  called  ritual,  in  attendance 
on  the  sacred  ceremonies  of  the  tabernacle  and  temple. 

During  the  abode  of  the  Israehtes  in  the  wilderness,  the 
duties  of  the  Levites  were  numerous  and  heavy.  They 
had  the  whole  charge  of  the  tabernacle,  and  when  it  was 
removed  had  to  carry  most  of  the  materials,  as  well  as  the 
sacred  utensils.  Their  duties  are  stated,  Num.  iv.  When 
settled  in  the  land  of  Israel,  many  of  these  ceased ;  and  in 
Joshua  xxi  are  the  names  of  cities  appointed  for  their  resi- 
dence. Some  Levites  were  still  engaged  in  the  services  of 
the  tabernacle,  but  there  is  no  regular  account  of  the  dis- 
tribution of  their  duties  till  the  time  of  David  and  Solomon, 
who  appointed  them  to  attend  the  temple  in  regular  rota- 
tion ;  and  when  not  thus  employed  at  Jerusalem,  they  were 
dispersed   through  the   country  on  other   public   duties. 

1  Chron.  xxvi,  32,  states  that  David  made  2,700  Levites 
rulers  over  the  two  tribes  and  a  half  located  beyond  Jor- 
dan, for  every  matter  pertaining  to  God,  and  affairs  of  the 
king.  Their  attention  having  been  directed  to  the  divine 
law  from  early  youth,  they  must  have  possessed  peculiar 
qualifications  for  these  offices.     From  1  Chron.  xxiii,  4,  and 

2  Chron.  xix,  8,  it  may  be  learned  that  they  were  employed 
by  David  and  Jehoshaphat,  generally,  as  officers  and 
judges.     David  allotted  6,000  for  these  duties ;  4,000  were 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  187 

to  be  porters  or  guards,  and  4,000  to  be  singers  and  musi- 
cians. At  that  time,  the  whole  number  of  the  tribe,  aged 
thirty  years  and  upward,  was  38,300,  and  the  remaining 
24,000  were  divided  into  twenty-four  courses  of  1,000 
each ;  see  1  Chron.  xxiii,  24 ;  and  2  Chron.  xxxi,  2  ;  these 
afterward  attended  the  temple,  each  course  for  a  week  in 
rotation,  and  all  the  duties  of  the  temple  were  discharged 
by  the  Levites.  The  time  for  the  attendance  of  each 
course  being  ascertained,  they  knew  at  what  periods  to  go 
up  to  Jerusalem.  From  among  them  the  guards  who  pro- 
tected the  temple,  and  kept  order  in  its  courts,  were  se- 
lected. The  singers  bore  an  important  part  in  the  temple 
services ;  for  their  use  many  of  the  psalms  were  composed. 
Heman,  Asaph,  and  Jeduthun,  were  chiefs  among  them. 
A  particular  account  of  the  porters  and  musicians  is  given, 
1  Chron.  xxv,  xxvi ;  and  2  Chron.  viii,  14,  shows  that  the 
arrangement  of  David  was  confirmed  by  Solomon,  when 
the  temple  was  completed.  From  1  Chron.  ix,  22,  it 
would  appear  that  these  regulations  were  partly  made  by 
Samuel,  whether  for  the  service  of  the  tabernacle,  or  in 
prospect  of  the  temple  establishment,  is  not  distinctly 
stated. 

Scripture  does  not  describe  any  dress  assigned  for  the 
Levites.  Josephus  says,  it  was  done  only  eight  years  be- 
fore the  destruction  of  the  temple,  when  they  obtained  per- 
mission to  wear  a  linen  tunic  like  the  priests,  which  dis- 
pleased some.  The  period  of  service  for  the  Levites  was 
settled  by  David  to  be  from  twenty  to  fifty  years  of  age, 
1  Chron.  xxiii,  24-27.  Besides  all  the  general  duties  of 
the  temple  and  tabernacle,  the  Levites  assisted  the  priests 
in  killing  the  sacrifices,  and  sang  during  the  offerings,  see 

1  Chron.  xxiii,  31,  and  2  Chron.  xxxi,  2 ;  but  they  did  not 
themselves  offer  the  sacrifices,  or  bum  the  incense,  unless 
in  case  of  necessity,  or  when  the  priests  were  remiss  in 
their  duties,  as  at  the  time  of  the  reformation  by  Hezekiah, 

2  Chron.  xxix,  34.  The  Levites  were  assisted  in  the  most 
laborious  duties  by  the  Nethinims,  who  are  supposed  to 
have  been  descendants  of  the  remains  of  the  Canaanites, 
principally  the  Gibeonites,  Ezra  viii,  20.  These  appear, 
from  Neh.  iii,  26,  to  have  had  a  place  at  Jerusalem  called 
Ophel,  near  the  temple,  for  their  residence.  The  word 
Nethinim  signifies  given,  or  devoted :  their  service  was  ac- 


188  JEWISH  NATION. 

counted  honorable,  so  as  to  be  mentioned  in  Ezra  and  Ne- 
hemiah  next  after  the  Levites. 

The  priests  were  the  descendants  of  Aaron,  chosen  from 
the  tribe  of  Levi  exclusively,  to  discharge  the  higher  duties 
of  the  public  service.  The  name,  when  apphed  to  men, 
signified  those  who  have  near  access  to  the  king,  as  it  is 
used  1  Chron.  xviii,  17.  They  prepared  the  victims  and 
offered  the  sacrifices ;  they  kept  up  the  fire  on  the  altar, 
attended  to  the  lights  in  the  golden  candlestick,  and  made 
the  loaves  of  shew-bread.  Every  morning  and  evening  a 
priest,  appointed  by  lot,  brought  a  censer  of  incense  into 
the  sanctuary,  kindled  with  fire  from  the  altar.  The  ark 
of  the  covenant,  in  the  wilderness,  and  in  the  times  of  the 
judges,  was  under  their  charge.  The  priests  were  divided 
by  David  into  twenty -four  classes,  (1  Chron.  xxiv,  18,) 
which  order  was  retained  by  Solomon,  Hezekiah,  and  Je- 
hoshaphat.  Descendants  from  only  four  of  these  classes 
returned  from  the  Babylonish  captivity,  Ezra  ii,  36-39 ; 
Neh.  vii,  39-42.  These  were  subdivided  into  the  same 
number  as  before,  of  twenty-four  classes,  distinguished  by 
the  original  names,  and  each  class  was  subdivided  into 
three  ranks.  The  chief  of  each  class  appointed  an  entire 
family  to  offer  the  sacrifices  of  each  day  ;  at  the  close  of 
the  week  they  all  united  together,  and  on  the  Sabbaths  the 
next  class  began  to  officiate.  The  members  of  each  family 
drew  lots  for  the  offices  they  were  to  perform,  which  will 
be  described  under  the  daily  service  of  the  temple.  But  the 
services  of  the  priests,  like  those  of  the  Levites,  included 
other  duties  besides  the  rites  of  the  temple.  It  is  ex- 
pressly noted  (2  Chron.  xv,  3)  that  Israel  had  long  been 
without  "  a  teaching  priest ;"  and  (Mai.  ii,  7)  that  "  the 
priest's  lips  should  keep  knowledge;"  and  that  the  people 
"  should  seek  the  law  at  his  mouth,"  because  he  was  "  the 
messenger  of  the  Lord  of  hosts." 

In  2  Chron.  xvii,  7,  is  a  full  account  of  the  manner  in 
which  Jehoshaphat  sent  some  of  his  princes,  with  priests 
and  Levites,  as  an  itinerant  ministry,  to  explain  the  Law, 
and  teach  the  people  throughout  all  the  cities  of  Judah. 
The  number  of  the  officiating  priests  is  not  distinctly  men- 
tioned in  Scripture.  Those  residing  at  Jerusalem,  soon 
after  the  captivity,  were  one  thousand  one  hundred  and 
ninety-two:    see  Neh.  xi,  10-14.     Josephus   states,  at  a 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  189 

later  period,  there  were  four  tribes  of  priests,  each  of  five 
thousand  persons.  A  considerable  number  lived  at  Jeri- 
cho, (Luke  X,  31,  32,)  from  whence  they  came  up  to  Jeru- 
salem when  their  duties  required ;  the  rest  were  dispersed 
through  the  land. 

The  genealogies  of  the  priests  were  preserved  in  the 
temple ;  all  who  sought  the  ofl&ce  had  to  prove  their  de- 
scent from  the  children  of  Aaron.  Health  of  body  and 
holiness  of  life  were  indispensable.  A  hundred  and  forty 
personal  blemishes  are  enumerated  as  excluding  from  the 
services  of  the  priesthood.  No  particular  ceremony  ap- 
pears to  have  been  observed  at  their  admission,  but  only 
the  performance  of  some  office  of  their  order,  at  a  sacrifice, 
after  they  had  been  very  strictly  examined  by  the  sanhe- 
drim as  to  their  descent  and  freedom  from  blemish.  They 
were  not  distinguished  by  their  dress,  unless  engaged  at 
the  altar. 

The  official  dress,  described  Exod.  xxviii,  and  Lev.  viii, 
was  provided  at  the  public  expense :  when  the  articles  be- 
came old  they  were  unraveled,  to  form  wicks  for  the 
lamps  required  at  the  nightly  rejoicings  during  the  feast  of 
tabernacles.  The  priests'  garments  were  linen  drawers  ; 
and  tunics,  or  long  garments  with  sleeves,  closely  fitted  to 
the  body,  made  of  linen,  which  it  is  considered  was  wrought 
in  checker- work,  somewhat  like  our  diaper  cloth;  with 
girdles,  or  long  embroidered  pieces,  encircling  the  body 
twice,  and  hanging  down  before ;  these  girdles,  having 
woolen  mixed  in  the  fabric,  might  not  be  worn  under 
other  circumstances.  They  wore  mitres,  or  tiaras ;  these 
were  turbans  of  several  rolls  of  linen  twisted  round  the 
head ;  they  originally  were  pointed  at  the  top,  but  in  later 
times  were  flat.  The  peculiarity  of  the  priests'  habit,  it 
has  been  remarked,  might  remind  them  of  the  necessity  of 
man's  being  clothed  with  other  righteousness  than  his  own  ; 
and  the  anointing  may  show  the  need  of  the  unction  of  the 
Holy  One,  in  all  his  gifts  and  graces. 

The  maintenance  of  the  priests  was  from  the  tenths  of 
the  tithes  received  by  the  Levites,  a  share  of  the  offerings, 
the  skins  of  the  animals  sacrificed,  and  the  redemption-mo- 
ney paid  for  every  first-born  Israelite,  Numb,  xviii,  15,  16. 
Also,  the  first-born  of  clean  animals,  and  the  first-fruits  of 
the  crops,  varying  from  a  fortieth  to  a  sixtieth.     They  also 


190  JEWISH  NATION. 

received  the  fruit  of  trees  in  the  fourth  year  of  their 
growth,  and  a  share  of  spoils  taken  in  warfare.  In  2  Chron. 
xxxi,  is  an  interesting  account  of  the  abundant  offering 
brought  in  by  the  people  for  the  portions  of  the  priests, 
and  as  free-will  offerings  upon  the  reformation  by  Heze- 
kiah,  when  the  nation  rejoiced  under  the  administration  of 
a  religious  king  and  a  faithful  ministry.  Such  were  the 
principal  revenues  of  the  priests ;  sufficient,  as  Home  ob- 
serves, "to  keep  them  above  want,  yet  not  so  ample  as  to 
enable  them  to  accumulate  riches,  or  impoverish  the  laity." 
By  this  wise  constitution  they  were  deprived  of  all  power 
to  injure  the  liberty  of  other  tribes,  or  endanger  the  na- 
tional polity.  Some  priests  are  spoken  of  as  mighty  in 
valor,  1  Chron.  xii,  27,  28  ;  and  Benaiah,  the  son  of  Jeho- 
iada  the  priest,  had  his  name  among  David's  thirty  wor- 
thies, 1  Chron.  xi,  22-25.  This  was  not  inconsistent  with 
the  principle  of  the  Jewish  theocracy,  which  regarded  Je- 
hovah as  the  supreme  Monarch  of  Israel ;  and  we  repeat- 
edly find  the  priests  mentioned  as  going  forth  with  the 
armies  to  battle.  The  services  of  those  called  porters  in- 
cluded the  duties  of  guards  and  sentinels. 

The  HIGH  PRIEST  was  over  all  the  other  priests.  He  was 
the  final  judge  in  all  controversies,  and  in  later  ages  held 
the  next  rank  to  the  prince,  and  at  times  united  both 
offices  in  his  own  person.  In  the  days  of  the  New  Testa- 
ment, all  who  had  filled  the  office  retained  the  title.  When 
the  high  priest  was  infirm,  or  had  committed  any  crime, 
(for  his  office  did  not  exempt  him  from  legal  control,)  or  if 
he  had  been  exposed  to  any  pollution,  so  as  to  disqualify 
him  for  a  time,  a  substitute,  called  the  sagan,  was  appointed 
to  perform  his  duties.  Upon  the  entrance  of  the  high 
priest  on  his  office,  he  was  invested  with  the  sacred  robes, 
and  anointed  with  the  holy  oil,  Exod.  xxx,  23-25 ;  but 
after  the  captivity  the  anointing  ceased.  Lev.  viii,  23-30, 
shows  that  in  the  consecration  of  Aaron  and  his  sons,  they 
were  sprinkled  with  the  blood  of  the  animal  sacrificed  at 
that  ceremony.  This  appears  to  have  been  imitated  and 
carried  further  by  the  heathen.  At  the  consecration  of  the 
high  priest  of  Cybele,  he  was  placed  in  what  literally  was 
a  shower-bath  of  blood  ;  and  when  he  came  forth,  with  his 
head  and  vestments  covered  with  blood,  he  was  considered 
as  so  holy  that  the  multitude  dared  not  approach  him. 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP. 


191 


The  robes  of  the  high  priest,  in  addition  to  those  worn 
by  other  priests,  were — 1.  The  coat,  or  robe  of  the  ephod, 
made  of  blue  wool ;  the  hem  or  border  was  ornamented 
with  seventy-two  golden  bells,  placed  alternately  with  as 
many  pomegranates  of  embroidered  work.  2.  The  ephod, 
a  vest  fastened  on  the  shoulders,  reaching  to  the  heels  be- 
hind, but  only  a  little  below  the  waist  in  front.  It  was  ot 
fine  twisted  hnen,  wrought  with  gold  and  purple.  On  each 
of  the  shoulders  was  a  clasp,  in  which  was  set  a  precious 
stone  engraved  with  the  names  of  the  tribes.  8.  The  breast- 
plate of  judgment  was  a  piece  of  cloth  hke  the  ephod,  ele- 
ven inches  square,  set  with  twelve  precious  stones,  also  en- 


THE  HIGH  PRIEST. 


graved  with  the  names  of  the  tribes.  This  had  something 
to  do  with  what  is  called  the  urim  and  the  thummim,  two 
words  meaning  "  lights,"  and  "  perfections,"  about  which 
learned  men  have  been  very  much  puzzled.  The  general 
and  most  probable  opinion  is,  that  these  words  mean  the 
twelve  precious  stones  in  the  breastplate.     In  the  descrip- 


192  JEWISH  NATION. 

tion  of  that  article,  (Lev.  viii,  8,)  those  stones  are  not  men- 
tioned as  in  Exodus,  but  it  is  said  that  the  urim  and  thum- 
mim  were  in  the  breastplate.  We  leara  from  different 
passages  of  Scripture,  that  when  the  high  priest  went  to 
ask  counsel  or  advice  of  Jehovah,  he  was  arrayed  with  this 
breastplate,  and  it  was  called  asking  counsel  after  the  judg- 
ment of  urim,  Num.  xxvii,  21.  This  solemn  consultation 
was  only  to  be  made  for  the  principal  public  personages, 
and  on  public  occasions  ;  some  Jewish  writers  think  it  was 
resorted  to  only  in  the  tabernacle.  Others  have  thought 
that  the  urim  and  thummim  were  three  precious  stones,  two 
inscribed  as  affirmative  and  negative,  and  one  left  blank, 
which  were  solemnly  drawn  as  lots,  in  answer  to  questions 
proposed  ;  they  refer  to  the  cases  of  Achan,  (Josh,  vii,)  and 
that  of  Jonathan,  (1  Sam.  xiv,  41,)  as  confirming  this  view. 
But,  as  Parkhurst  says,  it  may  suffice  to  know  that  this  was 
a  singular  piece  of  workmanship,  which  the  high  priest 
was  obliged  to  wear  upon  solemn  occasions,  as  one  of  the 
conditions  upon  which  God  engaged  to  give  him  answers. 
Perhaps  the  use  of  it  was  to  be  a  sign  that  the  Lord  would 
give  the  high  priest  an  inward  hght,  and  make  him  know 
the  Divine  will  as  to  what  was  inquired  after ;  see  Deut. 
xxxiii,  8 ;  1  Sam.  xxviii,  6 ;  Ezra  ii,  63 ;  Neh.  vii,  65. 
4.  The  high  priest  wore  a  crown  or  mitre,  on  the  front  of 
which  a  plate  of  pure  gold  was  fastened  by  a  blue  ribbon, 
engraved  with  Hebrew  words,  meaning  "  Holiness  to  the 
Lord."  A  full  description  of  these  robes  is  in  Exod.  xxviii 
and  xxxix. 

The  high  priest  was  arrayed  with  the  splendid  garments, 
on  solemn  occasions,  when  he  ministered  in  the  tabernacle 
and  temple  ;  but  at  other  times  he  wore  the  common  dress 
of  the  priests. 

The  feet  of  the  priests  were  always  bare  when  they  min- 
istered, in  token  of  reverence  to  the  Divine  presence  ;  see 
Exod.  iii,  5  ;  Josh,  v,  15.  During  the  services,  this  stand- 
ing barefooted  upon  the  marble  pavement  of  the  temple 
must  have  been  severely  felt,  especially  in  winter,  when  the 
body  was  frequently  bathed,  and  the  hands  and  feet  conti- 
nually washed  in  cold  water  ;  and  the  officiating  priests 
stood  upon  the  cold  stones  in  linen  dresses. 

The  high-priesthood  at  first  was  held  for  hfe  ;  but  Solo- 
mon deprived  Abiathar  of  the  office,  for  being  concerned 


EITES   AND   WORSHIP.  193 

in  Adonijah's  treasonable  practices,  1  Kings  ii,  2V.  Ori- 
ginally it  passed  from  father  to  son,  to  Eli,  having  conti- 
nued in  the  descendants  of  Eleazar,  the  son  of  Aaron. 
When  Hophni  and  Phinehas,  the  sons  of  EH,  met  with  an  un- 
timely death,  the  just  reward  of  their  wickedness,  the  high- 
priesthood  passed  to  the  descendants  of  Ithamar,  the  second 
son  of  Aaron,  1  Sam.  ii,  35,  36.  Josephus,  indeed,  asserts 
that  Eli  was  of  the  family  of  Ithamar.  But  in  the  reign  of 
Solomon  the  high-priesthood  was  again  in  the  family  of 
Eleazar,  for  Zadok  had  the  office,  1  Kings  ii,  35  ;  1  Chron. 
vi,  8.  In  that  branch  it  remained  till  the  captivity.  During 
this  period,  it  is  supposed  that  the  high  priest  was  elected 
by  the  other  priests,  or  by  an  assembly  partly  consisting 
of  them. 

After  the  captivity,  the  first  high  priest  was  Joshua,  the 
son  of  Josedech,  a  descendant  of  Eleazar,  Ezra  iii,  2.  The 
succession  next  passed  into  a  private  Levitical  family.  After- 
wards the  office  was  held  by  some  of  the  Maccabean  prin- 
ces, who  were  of  the  family  of  Aaron,  of  the  com^se  of 
Jehoiarib :  and  by  them  a  triple  crown  of  gold  was  added 
to  the  mitre,  they  being  princes  at  the  same  time.  The 
high-priesthood  ought  to  have  been  for  life ;  but  under  the 
Romans,  and  at  an  earlier  period,  under  Herod,  the  dignity, 
sanctity,  and  authority  of  the  office  were  almost  done  away. 
Even  at  a  still  earlier  date,  after  the  captivity,  the  office 
frequently  was  sold  to  the  highest  bidder,  and  latterly, 
sometimes  to  persons  not  of  the  families  of  the  priests. 
Often  they  were  changed  every  year,  which  explains  how 
several  high  priests  were  in  existence  at  the  same  time,  a%. 
those  who  had  held  the  office,  though  only  for  a  short  time, 
retained  the  title.  Ananus,  or  Annas,  so  often  mentioned 
in  the  Gospels,  was  himself  high  priest  for  several  years, 
and  saw  the  station  afterwards  filled  by  five  sons,  and  some 
of  his  sons-in-law,  which  gave  him  considerable  influence  in 
the  government,  even  when  out  of  office  ;  see  John  xviii,  13, 
and  Acts  iv,  6.  Caiphas  actually  was  the  high  priest,  but 
Annas  was  so  called,  when  Peter  and  John  were  brought 
before  the  council,  from  having  filled  that  office,  or  then 
being  the  segan. 

The  above  statement  includes  the  chief  particulars  re- 
lative to  the  office  of  the  priesthood  under  the  Mosaic  law. 
The  Scripture  declares  that  Aaron  and  his  successors  were 

9 


194  JEWISH   NATION. 

figures  of  the  great  High  Priest  of  our  profession,  Christ 
Jesus.  Sev^eral  writers  have  shown  that  the  circumstances 
relative  to  the  office,  even  the  articles  of  their  apparel,  had 
a  spiritual  meaning.  These  conveyed  instruction,  being 
emblematical  of  the  beauties  of  the  mind,  which  are  orna- 
mental to  the  soul,  implying  that  the  priests  should  be 
clothed  with  righteousness,  Psa.  cxxxii,  9.  The  desire  to 
spiritualize  sometimes  may  have  carried  writers  too  far  ;  but, 
as  the  high  priests  were  types  of  Christ,  we  must  readily 
admit  that  these  injunctions  are  not  unworthy  of  God,  nor. 
useless  to  man,  and  the  subject  deserves  most  serious  atten- 
tion. Especially  contemplate  the  high  priest  as  intercessor 
for  the  people,  the  only  person  permitted  to  enter  into  the 
most  holy  place  to  present  the  supplications  of  Israel. 
Christ  is  a  High  Priest,  who  is  a  reconciler  indeed ;  who 
presents  his  people  without  spot  to  God,  clothed  in  the 
robe  of  his  righteousness.  The  Mosaic  priesthood  has,  it  is 
true,  now  ceased,  Christ  being  the  end  of  the  law,  (see  Heb. 
vii,  viii,)  but  there  is  a  metaphorical  priesthood,  which  the 
New  Testament  ascribes  to  all  Christians  without  exception. 
Thus,  the  apostle  addresses  the  whole  body  of  believers  as 
a  royal  priesthood,  1  Pet.  ii,  9 ;  and,  in  many  respects,  the 
resemblance  between  the  priesthood  under  the  law,  and  that 
of  the  faithful  under  the  gospel,  is  easily  traced. 

Where  high  the  heavenly  temple  stands,— 
The  house  of  God  not  made  with  hands,— 
A  great  High  Priest  our  nature  wears, 
The  guardian  of  mankind  appears. 

He  who  for  men  their  surety  stood. 
And  pour'd  on  earth  his  precious  blood, 
Pursues  in  heaven  his  mighty  plan. 
The  Saviour  and  the  friend  of  man. 

In  every  pang  that  rends  the  heart. 
The  Man  of  sorrows  had  a  part ; 
He  sympathizes  in  our  grief, 
And  to  the  sufPrer  sends  relief. 

With  boldness,  therefore,  at  the  throne. 
Let  us  make  all  our  sorrows  known, 
And  ask  the  aid  of  Jesus'  power, 
To  help  us  in  the  evil  hom. 


RITES   AND   WORSHIP.  196 

CHAPTER  IX. 

THE  DAILY  SERVICE  OF  THE  TEMPLE. 

The  manner  in  which  the  daily  service  of  the  temple  was 
latterly  conducted  may  be  next  described.  Most  of  the 
priests,  when  on  duty,  resided  in  a  building  near  the  north- 
west corner  of  the  court  of  Israel,  called  the  fire-room. 
Their  first  care,  early  in  the  morning,  was  to  bathe  theii 
whole  bodies,  which  was  not  repeated  during  the  day,  though 
they  washed  their  hands  and  feet  every  time  they  had  left 
their  duties  and  returned  to  them.  Perhaps  our  Savioui 
alluded  to  this,  John  xiii,  10.  The  priests  having  bathed 
and  dressed,  waited  for  the  coming  of  him  who  was  called 
president  of  the  lots.  It  was  about  cock-crowing ;  but  the 
precise  time  was  uncertain,  which  our  Lord's  exhortation 
(Mark  xiii,  35,  36)  may  be  considered  to  illustrate.  On  his 
arrival,  the  priests  divided  into  two  companies,  and  passing 
round. the  opposite  sides  of  the  court,  with  lamps  or  torches, 
they  examined  that  all  was  safe,  and  met  at  the  gate 
Nicanor,  where  they  summoned  an  officer,  called  the  pastry- 
man,  to  make  the  cakes  for  the  high  priest's  meat-ofiering. 
They  then  went  into  the  chamber  called  Gezit,  and  having 
fixed  upon  a  number,  they  stood  in  a  circle,  and  each  held 
up  some  of  his  fingers,  more  or  less  as  he  pleased.  The 
president  then  directed  one  to  take  off  his  bonnet  or  turban, 
and  counting  his  fingers,  proceeded  to  the  next  person,  and 
so  counted  on  till  he  reached  the  number  already  settled. 

This  method  of  counting  fingers  was  occasioned  by  a 
superstition  as  to  counting  persons.  The  priest  with  whom 
this  enumeration  ended  was  to  begin  to  remove  the  ashes 
from  the  altar  of  burnt-offering,  a  post  considered  honor- 
able ;  and  thus  all  contention  for  it  was  prevented.  This 
plan  was  adopted  in  consequence  of  a  priest  having  his  leg 
broken,  by  being  pushed  off  the  ascent,  in  rushing  forward 
with  others  to  the  altar..  Having  washed  his  hands  and 
feet,  the  priest  filled  a  silver  shovel  with  ashes  from  the 
prmcipal  fire,  separated  from  the  unconsumed  wood  and 
flesh;  he  then  descended  to  the  pavement,  and  laid  the 
ashes  in  the  appointed  place.  The  others  then  came  for- 
ward and  assisted  in  the  work,  removing  the  ashes  to  a  clean 


196  JEWISH  NATION. 

place  without  the  city,  renewing  the  j&res,  and  replacing  on 
the  wood  any  parts  of  the  offerings  of  the  day  before  not 
yet  consumed.  The  priests  having  returned  to  the  room 
Gezit,  by  a  similar  plan  of  counting,  allotted  thirteen  par- 
ticular services  to  as  many  priests ;  the  others  were  to  act 
as  assistants. 

The  next  proceeding  was  to  offer  the  daily  morning  sacri- 
fice of  a  lamb,  Exod.  xxix,  39.  The  president  directed  one 
to  go  and  see  whether  it  was  time.  He  went  to  the  top  of 
a  part  of  the  building,  and  when  he  saw  the  dawn,  said,  "  It 
is  day !"  The  president  inquired,  "  Is  the  heaven  bright  up 
to  Hebron?"  On  being  answered  in  the  affirmative,  the 
lamb  was  ordered  to  be  brought.  The  appointed  priests 
examined  for  the  last  time  to  see  that  it  was  without  blemish, 
and  prepared  to  slaughter  it  on  the  north  side  of  the  altar. 
The  other  priests  meanwhile  brought  forward  the  ninety- 
three  silver  and  gold  vessels  used  in  the  ordinary  daily  ser- 
vices of  the  temple,  from  one  of  which  water  was  given  to 
the  lamb  to  drink.  Those  priests  who  had  the  keys  of  the 
gates  opened  the  doors  of  the  court  of  Israel  and  of  the 
holy  place.  The  noise  of  the  opening  of  the  latter  was 
the  signal  for  killing  the  lamb.  The  silver  trumpets  were 
sounded,  as  a  signal  for  the  musicians  to  be  at  their  desks, 
and  for  the  station  men,  who  represented  the  people  of 
Israel,  to  be  at  their  places.  Meanwhile,  the  lamps  in  the 
golden  candlestick  were  trimmed,  the  incense  altar  prepared, 
and  the  blood  of  the  lamb  sprinkled  on  the  large  altar. 
The  priests  then  returned  to  the  room  Gezit,  and  offered  the 
following  prayer : — "  Thou  hast  loved  us,  O  Lord  our  God, 
with  an  everlasting  love :  with  great  and  abundant  compas- 
sion hast  thou  compassionated  us,  0  our  Father,  our  King. 
For  our  fathers'  sakes,  who  trusted  in  thee,  and  whom  thou 
didst  teach  statutes  of  life,  so  be  gracious  to  us  also,  0  our 
Father,  O  most  merciful  Father.  0  thou  compassionate 
One,  pity  us ;  and  put  into  our  hearts  to  know,  understand, 
obey,  learn,  teach,  observe,  do,  and  perform  all  the  words 
of  the  doctrine  of  thy  law  in  love.  And  enlighten  our  eyes 
by  thy  law,  and  cause  our  hearts  to  cleave  to  thy  command- 
ments, and  unite  our  hearts  to  love  and  fear  thy  name." 
The  priests  then  recited  the  commandments  and  the  con- 
tents of  their  phylacteries,  and  again  had  recourse  to  lots  to 
fix  who  should  ofifer  incense,  and  who  should  lay  the  pieces 


KITES  AND  WORSHIP.  197 

of  the  lamb  on  the  fire.  Two  persons  having  been  selected 
for  the  first  duty,  proceeded  to  the  sanctuary  for  that  pur- 
pose, and  joined  two  others  who  had  trimmed  the  lamps. 
When  all  was  prepared,  three  went  into  the  porch,  and  only 
one  remained  to  burn  the  incense.  He  waited  till  the  pre- 
sident called  to  him  to  offer,  which  was  not  done  till  all  the 
priests  had  retired  from  the  space  between  the  porch  and 
the  altar,  and  the  people  were  ready  to  worship.  The  in- 
cense was  then  kindled,  the  holy  place  filled  with  perfume, 
and  the  people  recited  prayers,  first  for  the  heathens  who 
were  friendly  to  the  Jewish  people,  and  then  for  their  own 
nation.  These  prayers  have  been  translated  by  Lightfoot ; 
and  it  is  well  observed,  that,  on  comparison  with  the  most 
reverent  and  best  of  the  prayers  offered  by  the  heathen  to 
their  gods,  we  may  plainly  see  the  vast  advantages  a  land 
possesses  by  being  favored  with  Divine  revelation.  In  the 
emphatic  words  of  the  Psalmist,  "Blessed  is  the  nation 
whose  God  is  the  Lord,"  Psa.  xxxiii,  12.  However,  the 
prayers  used  in  the  later  times  were  disfigured  by  vain  re- 
petitions, and  destitute  of  that  unction  which  exists  in  the 
prayers  of  the  gospel  dispensation,  wherein  reference  is  made 
to  the  Saviour,  the  Lamb  of  God,  who  died  to  take  away 
the  sins  of  the  world,  and  who  pleads  for  his  people,  offer- 
ing up  their  prayers  with  the  sweet  incense  of  his  interces- 
sion. The  office  of  burning  incense  was  accounted  parti- 
cularly honorable ;  it  could  only  be  performed  once  by  the 
same  priest  during  his  administration.  It  fell  by  lot  to 
Zacharias  at  the  time  mentioned,  Luke  i,  9. 

After  these  prayers  were  ended,  the  pieces  of  the  lamb 
were  laid  reverently  upon  the  fire.  When  this  was  done, 
the  four  priests  who  had  been  in  the  temple  appeared  upon 
the  steps  of  the  porch.  They  stood  looking  humbly  towards 
the  ground,  their  hands  raised  above  their  heads,  and  the 
one  who  had  burned  the  incense  solemnly  pronounced  the 
blessing,  Num.  vi,  24-26.  This  explains  Luke  i,  9.  The 
daily  meat-offering  was  then  offered,  next  the  meat-oflfering 
for  the  high  priest,  and  lastly  the  drink-offering.  At  the 
conclusion  the  Levites  began  the  song  of  praise,  pausing  at 
times  while  the  trumpets  soimded  and  the  people  wor- 
shiped. 

The  psalms  regularly  sung  were  the  24th,  48th,  81st, 
8 2d,  9 2d,  93d,  and  94th ;  one  upon  each  successive  day  of 


198  JEWISH    NATION, 

the  week,  the  last  upon  the  Sabbath.  This  selection,  it  is 
said,  was  made  with  some  reference  to  each  day  of  the  cre- 
ation. Other  psalms  probably  were  sung  during  the  day, 
while  the  sacrifices  of  individuals  were  offering.  On  the 
Sabbath  also  there  was  an  additional  sacrifice,  during  which, 
in  the  morning,  the  Levites  sang  the  song  of  Moses,  (Deut. 
xxxii,)  and  in  the  evening  that  in  Exod.  xv,  each  divided 
into  six  parts,  one  for  each  of  six  successive  weeks.  Some 
think  there  is  a  reference  to  this  in  Rev.  xv,  3,  where  the 
saints  who  had  reached  heaven,  the  place  of  everlasting 
Sabbath,  or  rest,  are  said  to  sing  the  song  of  Moses.  The 
singing  was  accompanied  by  instrumental  music,  mentioned 
in  Kings  and  Chronicles.  There  never  were  fewer  than 
twelve  singers,  frequently  more.  On  this  occasion,  also,  the 
young  children  of  the  Levites  were  allowed  to  stand  between 
their  father's  feet  and  join  in  the  psalm,  though  forbidden 
to  enter  the  court  at  other  times. 

The  above  description  refers  to  the  ritual  services  of  the 
temple  every  morning.  The  duties  of  the  priests,  during 
the  middle  of  the  day,  varied  according  to  circumstances : 
but  some  were  always  in  readiness  to  offer  the  sacrifices  any 
Israelites  might  come  to  present,  whether  a  freewill-offering, 
or  to  expiate  an  offense.  Though  the  sacrifices  sometimes 
were  few,  at  other  times  they  were  numerous,  especially  at 
the  great  festivals. 

The  evening  service  began  at  the  ninth  hour,  about  three 
or  four  o'clock,  and  was  nearly  the  same  as  that  of  the  morn- 
ing :  the  same  duties  being,  for  the  most  part,  performed  by 
the  same  persons,  and  nearly  in  the  same  order. 

Such  was  the  daily  routine  of  the  temple  service ;  there 
is  much  in  it  very  impressive,  although  many  of  the  circum- 
stances described  sound  strange  to  us  as  connected  with  the 
worship  of  God.  These  ritual  observances  were  designed 
for  the  whole  nation,  to  keep  before  their  view  continually 
the  Great  Atonement  now  so  distinctly  set  before  us  in  the 
Gospel.  There  Were  services  of  prayer  and  praise  through- 
out their  land,  similar  to  our  present  public  worship. 

The  regularity  and  minute  exactness  with  which  every 
circumstance  was  performed,  were  very  suitable  to  the  ser- 
vice of  that  Being  who  is  a  God  of  order  and  not  of  confu- 
sion, and  widely  different  from  the  sacrifices  and  services 
of  the  heathen.     The  early  hour  of  the  morning  sacrifice, 


RITES    AND    WORSHIP.  199 

which  began  with  the  first  dawn — the  nature  of  the  sacri- 
ficial ceremonies,  founded  on  the  admitted  fact  that  all  man- 
kind are  sinners,  and  leading  to  Him  who  was  the  Lamb 
slain  from  the  foundation  of  the  world,  (Rev.  xiii,  8) — the 
awful  silence  at  prayer — the  solemn  benediction  from  the 
steps  of  the  holy  place — the  general  and  harmonious  song 
of  praise,  and  the  open  and  regular  repetition  of  all  these 
services — very  strongly  contrast  with  the  abominations  of 
the  heathen  rites,  concerning  which  the  apostle  so  emphati- 
cally says,  "  It  is  a  shame  even  to  speak  of  those  things 
which  were  done  of  them  in  secret,"  in  their,  falsely  so 
called,  religious  services,  Eph.  v,  12. 

There  were  various  minute  regulations  to  insure  the  re- 
verent and  orderly  conduct  of  the  people  at  large,  when 
attending  the  services  in  the  inner  court.  Many  of  these 
became  mere  forms  in  the  latter  days  of  the  Jewish  state : 
some  were  burdensome ;  others,  which  were  wholly  of  their 
own  devising,  were  trifling,  or  even  absurd. 

The  sagan,  it  has  been  stated,  acted  as  the  substitute  for 
the  high  priest,  or  as  his  assistant.  Zephaniah,  mentioned 
2  Kings  XXV,  18,  as  the  second  priest,  probably  was  this 
officer.  From  the  priests  were  selected  two  overseers  of 
the  treasuries,  seven  overseers  of  the  gates  and  chambers 
where  the  vestments  and  utensils  were  deposited ;  also 
deputy  collectors,  the  president  of  the  weekly  course,  and 
the  heads  of  the  houses  of  their  fathers.  There  were  fif- 
teen overseers  to  superintend  the  due  performance  of  various 
duties.  Among  them  we  need  only  mention  three  :  "  the 
man  of  the  mountain  of  the  Lord's  house,"  whose  duty  it 
was  to  visit  the  nightly  guards,  the  Levites ;  the  overseer 
of  the  sick — the  priests  were  often  unwell,  from  being  thinly 
clothed  and  barefooted  during  the  services ;  and  the  over- 
seer of  the  water,  who  had  to  take  care  that  the  temple 
was  abundantly  supplied.  Nicodemus,  who  came  to  Jesus 
by  night,  is  supposed  by  some  to  have  held  this  office. 

The  Levites  acted  as  guards  during  the  night,  at  twenty- 
one  out  of  twenty-four  stations,  in  the  courts  of  the  temple. 
Priests  were  stationed  at  the  other  three.  These  guards 
were  visited  by  the  officer  called  "  the  man  of  the  moun- 
tain." If  any  Levite  were  found  asleep,  he  was  beaten 
upon  the  spot,  and  his  garments  set  on  fire  by  the  torches 
carried  by  those  who  accompanied  this  visitor.     Some  think 


200  JEWISH  NATION. 

this  is  alluded  to,  Rev.  xvi,  15.  It  has  also  been  thought 
that  Psalm  cxxxiv  was  repeated  by  this  oflficer  and  the 
guards  when  visited. 

The  stationary  men,  or  Israelites  of  the  station,  are  not 
mentioned  in  Scripture ;  but,  from  the  Jewish  writings,  we 
learn  that  latterly  there  were  twenty-four  courses  of  persons, 
selected  from  the  nation  at  large,  who  attended  in  rotation, 
in  the  same  manner  as  the  Levites.  The  objects  in  view  in 
this  appointment  seem  to  have  been,  that  there  should  al- 
ways be  a  sufficient  number  of  persons  present  at  the  temple 
services ;  particularly  as  the  representatives  of  the  nation, 
at  the  sacrifices  appointed  to  be  offered  for  the  whole  people. 
We  do  not  learn  their  number,  but  are  told  that  those  at 
home  met  the  priests  and  Levites  in  the  synagogues  of 
their  respective  cities  to  pray,  read  the  law,  and  entreat 
that  the  services  of  their  brethren,  then  in  attendance  at 
Jerusalem,  might  be  accepted  for  the  people.  They  might 
not  be  trimmed  by  a  barber,  nor  have  their  clothes  washed 
during  their  attendance ;  they  were  expected  especially  to 
manifest  devout  behavior  during  that  time.  They  also 
then  read  a  portion  of  Scripture  daily,  part  of  Genesis  i 
and  ii. 

Some  of  these  daily  services  were  added  after  the  return 
from  captivity ;  but  the  main  outline  was  the  same,  from 
the  first  erection  of  the  tabernacle  to  the  destruction  of  the 
last  temple  by  the  Romans.  During  the  reigns  of  the  idola- 
trous kings  the  services  were  discontinued,  particularly  by 
Ahaz,  who  shut  up  the  house  of  the  Lord,  and  suffered  the 
courts  to  be  defiled  with  filth,  2  Chron.  xxviii,  24  ;  xxix,  16. 
After  the  captivity,  the  services  were  very  regularly  at- 
tended to ;  any  omissions  were  occasioned,  not  by  neglect 
on  the  part  of  the  Jews,  but  by  the  \aolence  of  their  ene- 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP. 


201 


SACRIFICES  IN  THE  COURT  OF  THE  TABERNACLE. 


CHAPTER  X. 


THE    SACRIFICES. 

The  animals  sacrificed  at  the  Jewish  altar  were  selected  ac- 
cording to  the  circumstances  and  situation  in  life  of  the 
offerer,  but  only  five  sorts  were  accepted.  These  were  bul- 
locks, goats,  sheep,  turtle-doves,  and  young  pigeons.  Of 
all  these,  burnt-offerings  might  be  offered,  so  called  from  a 
Hebrew  word  signifying  "  to  ascend,"  as  in  smoke  or  flame. 
And  here  bear  in  mind  the  object  for  which  these  offerings 
were  made.  Tlie  offerer,  conscious  of  the  evil  of  his  heart, 
and  the  sins  he  had  committed,  was  desirous  that  these 
should  be  done  away  by  faith  in  the  Messiah,  typified  by 
these  sacrifices ;  or,  having  committed  some  actual  offense, 
he  wished  to  express  his  sorrow  and  desire  of  pardon 
through  the  same  Great  Sacrifice,  and  therefore  brought 
his  offering,  according  to  the  precept  of  the  law  in  such  a 
case. 

The  offerer  was  to  appear  '*  before  the  Lord,"  (Lev.  i,  3,) 
to  present  himself  in  the  court  of  the  tabernacle,  in  front  of 

9* 


202  JEWISH  NATION. 

it,  or  "before  the  door."  When  the  temple. was  erected, 
this  was  understood  to  mean  in  the  court  of  Israel.  Hav- 
ing brought  the  animal,  he  laid  his  hand  upon  its  head 
while  yet  alive.  This  was  emblematical ;  it  denoted  a 
solemn  transfer  of  sin  from  himself  to  the  victim,  and  that 
by  its  death  he  acknowledged  his  own  liability  to  suffer : 
thus  every  sacrifice  was  a  type  of  Christ's  suffering  for  us. 
This  was  usually  done  on  the  north  side  of  the  altar,  among 
the  rings.  The  offerer  stood  with  his  face  towards  the  holy 
place,  and  said,  "  I  have  sinned ;  I  have  done  perversely ; 
I  have  rebelled  and  done  thus ;"  mentioning,  either  aloud 
or  to  himself,  his  offense,  or  the  cause  of  the  offering ; — 
*'  but  I  return  by  repentance  before  Thee  ;  and  let  this  be 
my  expiation."  The  animal  was  then  fastened  to  one  of 
the  rings  if  large,  or  only  its  feet  tied  if  small ;  its  head  was 
laid  towards  the  south,  and  its  face  turned  to  the  holy  place. 
At  first  the  animal  often  was  struck,  and  the  blood  received, 
by  the  offerer ;  but,  in  the  time  of  the  temple  worship,  this 
was  done  by  the  priests,  who  were  then  more  numerous, 
and  better  skilled  in  doing  it.  The  blood  being  received  in 
sacred  vessels  was  taken  to  the  altar,  the  vessels  being 
handed  by  one  to  another  as  they  were  filled.  The  blood 
was  sprinkled  on  the  sides  of  the  altar  by  a  priest,  as  al- 
ready stated.  The  person  whose  office  it  was  to  flay  and 
divide  the  animal,  hung  it,  when  dead,  upon  one  of  the 
hooks,  took  off  the  skin,  which  was  given  to  the  priests ; 
and,  dividing  the  carcass  into  several  parts,  handed  them 
in  succession  to  other  priests  in  waiting,  by  whom  they 
were  carried  to  the  ascent  of  the  altar,  and  sprinkled  with 
salt,  Lev.  ii,  13.  To  this  Christ  referred,  Mark  ix,  49,  50. 
It  is  considered  that,  as  salt  preserves  things  from  putrefy- 
ing, so  the  application  of  it  to  the  sacrifices  signified  that 
the  covenant  of  grace  is  lasting.  The  priest  who  had  to 
lay  the  pieces  on  the  altar,  then  cut  out  the  sinew  mentioned 
Gen.  xxxii,  32,  threw  it  among  the  ashes,  and  laid  the  pieces 
upon  the  burning  pile  of  wood,  nearly  in  their  natural  posi- 
tion. In  the  holocausts,  or  whole  burnt-offerings,  all  the 
pieces  were  consumed. 

Birds  were  always  brought  in  pairs ;  one  was  carried 
round  the  altar,  its  head  wrung  off,  and  the  blood  sprin- 
kled, its  feathers  stripped,  and  its  crop  turned  out  and  the 
contents  cast  among  the  ashes.     The  body  was  then  cut 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  203 

open,  salted  as  well  as  the  head,  and  both  were  laid  upon 
the  fire. 

The  SIN-OFFERING  wa§  also  a  burnt-offering,  but  differed 
from  what  has  been  already  described  in  some  particulars. 
The  victims  were  offered  for  sins  committed  inadvertently, 
or  through  ignorance,  but  for  which  the  offender  would 
have  deserved  cutting  off  if  done  willingly.  There  were 
some  other  occasions  enumerated  in  Leviticus,  both  public 
and  private,  when  sin-offerings  were  to  be  made,  but  the 
later  Jewish  doctors  enumerated  three  hundred  and  sixty- 
five  precepts  ;  for  forty-three  of  these,  if  broken,  a  sin-offer- 
ing was  required.  The  beast  being  killed,  as  already  de- 
scribed, some  of  the  blood  was  sprinkled  in  the  holy  place, 
before  the  veil,  as  well  as  on  the  altar,  and  if  for  individu- 
als, also  on  the  golden  altar  of  incense.  The  fat  and  in- 
wards only  were  burned  upon  the  altar,  the  carcasses  were 
given  to  the  priests,  who  might  eat  the  flesh  within  the 
temple ;  but,  in  the  sin-offering  for  the  priests  or  for  the 
congregation,  (Lev.  iv,)  only  the  fat  was  burned  upon  the 
altar ;  all  the  rest,  even  the  skin,  was  carried  to  the  place 
where  the  ashes  used  to  be  cast  out,  and  there  burned. 
The  birds  were  offered  as  already  described,  but  were 
given  to  the  priests.  They  ate  of  the  sacrifices  after  the 
services  were  concluded ;  so  their  chief  meal  must  have 
been  in  the  evening  :  it  was  unlawful  to  eat  after  midnight. 

The  principle  set  forth  by  the  sin-offerings,  we  have 
seen,  was  to  seek  atonement  for  sins  committed  from  igno- 
rance. And  in  several  parts  of  the  New  Testament,  as  in 
Romans  viii,  3 ;  2  Cor.  v,  21,  Christ  is  spoken  of  as  a  sin- 
offering,  the  original  word  meaning  both  sin  and  the  offer- 
ing for  sin,  as  Magee  and  others  clearly  show.  But,  as  the 
offerings  went  to  the  priests,  in  corrupt  times  they  desired 
to  promote  their  own  advantage  more  than  the  devotion  of 
the  people.  To  this,  perhaps,  Hosea  referred,  chap,  iv,  8, 
when  he  said,  "  They  eat  up  the  sin"  (the  original  word 
also  signifies  sin-offering)  "  of  my  people,  and  they  set  their 
heart  on  their  iniquity."  They  sought  their  own  advantage, 
instead  of  the  reformation  of  the  people. 

Another  class  of  sacrifices  was  the  trespass-offerings. 
These  were  for  doubtful  cases,  as  when  a  person  was  in 
doubt  whether  what  he  did  were  criminal  or  not,  such  as 
the  case  stated  Lev.  v,  2-6 ;  but  the  Jewish  doctors,  in 


204  JEWISH  NATION. 

later  times,  added  to  the  burden  of  this,  as  well  as  to  other 
observances.  The  trespass-offerings  evidently  were  de- 
signed that  the  conscience  might  be  kept  tender,  and  the 
appearance  of  evil  be  shunned.  But  evil-disposed  priests 
gained  many  advantages  by  raising  scruples  ;  thus,  as  well 
as  in  other  instances,  laying  upon  the  people  a  burden  too 
heavy  to  be  borne.  Trespass-offerings  were  expressly  or- 
dered in  the  case  of  things  stolen,  unjustly  gotten,  or  de- 
tained ;  for  sacrilege,  injury  to  a  bondmaid,  for  the  Nazarite, 
and  for  the  leper.  The  carcasses  of  the  animals  in  this  case 
also  went  to  the  priests,  except  the  fat  and  part  of  the 
inwards.  There  was  an  exception  in  the  case  of  the  leper. 
Part  of  the  blood  of  the  lamb  was  put  upon  the  tip  of  his 
right  ear,  the  thumb  of  his  right  hand,  and  the  great  toe 
of  his  right  foot.  The  sacrifice  also,  as  less  holy,  was 
killed  on  the  south  side  of  the  court,  and  the  flesh  might 
be  eaten  by  any  persons,  and  out  of  the  temple. 
-  The  PEACE-OFFERINGS  included  thank-offerings,  freewill- 
offerings,  and  offerings  in  consequence  of  vows.  These 
were  usually  of  calves  or  lambs;  and  a  freewill-offering 
needed  not  to  be  free  from  blemish.  The  blood  was 
sprinkled,  the  fat  and  inwards  burned ;  the  breast  and 
shoulder,  after  being  lifted  and  waved  by  the  offerer  from 
right  to  left  and  up  and  down,  but  always  toward  the  altar, 
was  kept  by  the  priests ;  the  rest  of  the  sacrifice  might  be 
eaten  by  the  offerer,  under  certain  regulations,  after  having 
been  boiled  in  a  part  of  the  temple  used  for  that  purpose. 
In  the  case  of  Eli's  sons,  the  priests  took  more  than  the 
portion  assigned  them,  and  that  in  an  overbearing,  violent 
manner,  1  Sam.  ii,  13,  14.  Every  peace-offering  was  ac- 
companied by  a  meat-offering  of  cakes  of  flour;  a  part 
was  burned,  and  the  rest  given  to  the  priests. 

The  sacrifices  above  described  might  be  offered  by  hea- 
thens, either  directly  or  indirectly,  by  the  congregation  of 
Israel  at  large,  and  by  individual  Israelites  ;  such,  at  least, 
was  the  practice  in  later  times.  The  Jewish  writers  speak 
of  the  space  between  Jerusalem  and  the  tower  of  the  flock, 
or  the  tower  of  Edar,  (Micah  iv,  8,)  as  partly  used  for  a 
pasture  for  cattle,  the  males  of  which  were  used  for  burnt- 
offerings,  and  the  females  for  peace-offerings.  This  is 
thought  to  be  the  place  where  the  shepherds  were  watch- 
ing their  flocks  by  night,  when  the  angel  brought  them 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP. 


205 


tidings  of  Christ's  birth,  Luke  ii,  8-14.  Perhaps  the  ani- 
mals they  watched  over  were  intended  for  the  sacrifices 
which  typified  the  Lamb  of  God,  whose  appearance  on 
earth  was  then  announced.  The  tower  of  Edar  is  men- 
tioned as  one  of  the  places  where  Jacob  fixed  his  abode. 
Gen.  XXXV,  21. 


"T'i'lliiPfW! 


% 


.J^ 


^^^SW 


THE  MEAT-OFFERING. 

Another  class  of  offerings  included  those  called  meat- 
offerings. Of  these  there  were  three  for  the  whole  con- 
gregation:— 1.  The  shew-bread.  Lev.  xxiv,  5-9.  2.  The 
sheaf  of  the  first-fruits  of  barley,  Lev.  xxiii,  10-12  ;  this 
was  waved  before  the  Lord.  The  side  motion,  the  later 
Jewish  rabbins  said,  was  for  restraining  evil  winds,  the  up- 
and-down  motion  for  restraining  evil  dews :  thus  did  they 
add  to  the  simple  statements  of  the  divine  law.  3.  The 
offering  of  two  wheaten  loaves,  for  first-fruits,  at  the  feast 
of  Pentecost,  Lev.  xxiii,  17.  The  offerings  for  individuals 
were  : — 1.  The  daily  offering  of  the  high  priest,  Exod.  xxix, 
40,  41.  2.  That  offered  by  every  priest  on  entering  his 
office,  Exod.  xxix ;  Lev.  vi,  20 ;  these  were  wholly  burned. 
3.  The  offering  of  a  small  quantity  of  flour,  by  a  poor  man, 
instead  of  an  animal,  for  a  sin-offering,  Lev.  v,  11.  4.  The 
offering  of  barley-meal,  brought  with  a  suspected  wife, 


206  JEWISH  NATION. 

Num.  V,  15  ;  this  and  the  first-fruits  at  the  passover  were 
the  only  oflPerings  of  barley.  5.  An  offering,  Lev.  ii,  13 ; 
this  appears  to  have  been  a  thank-offering  for  the  bounties 
of  Providence,  and  might  be  of  dough,  either  unbaked,  or 
baked  in  an  oven  or  a  pan,  also  in  wafers  or  thinner  cakes. 
6.  The  first-fruits,  Lev.  xxiii,  10-21.  Oil  and  frankincense 
appear  to  have  been  required  in  most  of  these.  Among 
the  exceptions  was  the  poor  man's  offering ;  but  neither 
leaven  nor  honey  was  allowed  in  any  case  ;  see  Lev.  ii,  11. 
It  has  been  observed,  that  leaven  is  the  emblem  of  pride, 
malice,  and  hypocrisy;  honey,  of  sensual  pleasure:  these 
are  directly  opposed  to  the  graces  and  to  the  conduct  re- 
quired by  the  divine  law.  Regular  proportions  of  flour 
and  the  other  articles  were  directed  for  the  different  sacri- 
fices, and  were  kept  in  readiness  for  the  offerers.  In  our 
Saviour's  days,  the  flour  being  mixed  properly  in  a  gold  or 
silver  dish  belonging  to  the  temple,  it  was  put  with  the 
frankincense  into  the  vessel  of  service.  The  priest,  then 
standing  at  the  south-east  horn  of  the  altar,  took  a  handful 
from  the  part  moistened  with  oil,  salted  it,  and  laid  it  upon 
the  fire  with  the  frankincense.  The  rest  was  carried  away 
for  the  priests'  use. 

The  DRINK-OFFERING  was  a  quantity  of  wine,  differing 
according  to  the  occasion,  poured  out,  as  the  remainder  of 
blood,  at  the  base  of  the  altar.  This  was  offered  with  the 
morning  and  evening  sacrifice,  (Exod.  xxix,  40,)  and  on 
other  occasions. 

The  due  performance,  or  payment  of  these  offerings,  ap- 
pears to  have  been  enforced  by  conscientious  feelings  in  the 
minds  of  the  pious.  Bodily  punishments  were  inflicted  on 
the  unprincipled ;  the  strict  Pharisaical  observances  of  out- 
ward ceremonies  also  acted  as  a  general  stimulus  in  later 
times.  They  were  at  least  to  be  offered  on  one  of  the  three 
solemn  festivals,  when  every  male  Israelite  was  required  to 
attend  and  worship  before  the  Lord  in  the  tabernacle  or 
temple,  Exod.  xxiii,  14 ;  Deut.  xvi,  16. 

It  is  evident  that  such  observances  are  widely  different 
from  any  services  appointed  under  the  gospel  dispensation ; 
but  the  directions  respecting  sacrifices,  and  the  accounts  of 
their  being  offered,  are  so  minute  and  frequent,  that  we  can- 
not be  at  any  uncertainty  as  to  their  having  been  not  only 
directed,  but  also  offered  up.     And,  considering  the  im- 


RITES   AND   WORSHIP.  207 

mense  number  of  sacrifices  offered  on  some  occasions,  as 
that  of  the  dedication  of  the  temple  by  Solomon,  (1  Kings 
viii,  62-64,)  and  at  the  cleansing  of  the  sanctuary  by  Heze- 
kiah,  (2  Chron.  xxix,  31-35,)  the  courts  of  the  temple 
would  present  a  scene  which  would  now  appear  very  singu- 
lar to  us,  as  well  as  the  priests  being  regularly  employed  in 
slaughtering  animals.  We  may  be  thankful  that  a  more 
simple  way  of  approach  to  the  mercy-seat  is  permitted  to 
us,  less  repugnant  to  the  general  feelings  of  mankind.  In 
later  times,  the  number  of  sacrifices  often  was  very  great : 
at  one  of  the  last  passovers  celebrated  in  Jerusalem  it  is 
stated  that  255,000  lambs  were  eaten,  so  that,  at  least,  three 
millions  of  people  must  have  been  present ;  and  that  Josiah 
gave  to  the  people  no  less  than  30,000  kids  or  lambs  for 
the  passover,  2  Chron.  xxxv,  7  ;  all  these  must  have  been 
without  blemish. 

We  are  not  able  to  ascertain  the  manner  in  which  the 
Levites  studied  the  law,  so  as  to  know  the  extent  of  their 
views  as  to  the  design  and  meaning  of  the  sacrifices  ;  but 
there  are  statements  in  the  Prophets  sufficient  to  show  that 
the  types  were  studied  with  reference  to  the  Messiah ;  and 
it  is  plain  that  some  among  the  Jews  saw  and  rejoiced  in 
the  day  of  Christ,  being  led  to  contemplate  it  by  the  typical 
sacrifices  and  figurative  language  of  Scripture ;  see  Heb.  xi, 
1,  26  ;  John  viii,  56  ;  Luke  ii,  25,  38.     . " 


CHAPTER  XI. 

THE  JEWISH  FESTIVALS. 

The  three  great  annual  festivals  of  the  Jews  brought  to 
remembrance  three  most  important  national  blessings  :  the 
bringing  of  the  people  out  of  Egypt,  the  giving  the  law, 
and  the  putting  into  their  possession  the  land  of  promise. 
They  are  mentioned  particularly,  Lev.  xxiii.  Each  festival 
continued  several  days,  and  all  or  most  of  the  males  were 
required  to  be  present  at  the  tabernacle,  being  assured  that 
their  homes  should  not  be  injured  during  their  absence  on 
these  occasions,  Exod.  xxxiv,  23,  24.  This  positive  pledge 
and  assurance  is  a  manifest  proof  that  the  religion  requiring 


208  JEWISH  NATION. 


MODERN  JERUSALEM. 


sucli  an  observance  was  from  God,  and  upheld  by  his  al- 
mighty power  and  particular  providence.  For  it  does  not 
appear  that  the  nation  ever  received  any  injury  during  the 
attendance  on  these  occasions  ;  though,  from  passages  in  the 
historical  books  and  Gospels,  it  is  evident  that  this  resort 
to  the  tabernacle,  or  to  Jerusalem,  was  obligatory  upon  the 
people  at  large.  The  first  instance  of  injury  on  record  hap- 
pened thirty  years  after  the  national  rejection  of  Christ, 
when  Josephus  states  that  fifty  persons  were  slain  at  Lydda, 
while  the  rest  of  the  inhabitants  were  absent  attending  the 
feast  of  tabernacles. 

At  these  times  the  Jews,  from  all  parts  of  the  country, 
met  together  as  brethren  ;  they  often  went  up  accompanied 
by  their  wives,  (1  Sam.  i,  3,  7,)  and  in  large  companies, 
Luke  ii,  44.  Several  of  the  Psalms,  it  is  supposed,  were 
sung  during  these  journeys  to  Jerusalem.  Here  is  a  re- 
markable instance  of  direct  providential  interposition,  united 
with  a  right  observance  or  use  of  means ;  for  these  festivals 
occurred  at  the  seasons  best  suited  for  traveling,  and  did 
not  interfere  with  the  ordinary  labors  of  the  field.  This 
attendance  promoted  mutual  love  and  friendship,  by  persons 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  209 

from  different  parts  thus  often  meeting  together.  It  tended 
to  keep  up  attention  to  the  services,  and  may  be  considered 
as  typifying  the  gathering  of  all  the  people  together  to 
Christ,  and  into  his  Church,  from  all  parts  of  the  world, 
under  the  Christian  dispensation.  These  assembhes  appear 
to  be  alluded  to,  Heb.  xii,  23. 

The  first  of  the  great  festivals  was  the  passover,  insti- 
tuted to  remind  the  Israelites  of  their  deliverance  from 
Egypt.  A  full  account  of  this  festival  is  given  in  Exod. 
xii,  3-28.  It  was  called  the  feast  of  unleavened  bread, 
because  no  leavened  bread  was  to  be  eaten  during  the  seven 
days  it  lasted,  to  remind  the  Jews  how  their  fathers  left 
Egypt  in  haste,  Deut.  xvi,  3.  Even  now,  before  the  pass- 
over,  the  Jews  examine  their  houses  very  scrupulously,  to 
be  sure  that  not  a  morsel  of  leavened  bread  remains  within 
their  walls.  It  used  to  be  customary,  and  perhaps  may  be 
so  still,  to  leave  a  few  crumbs  in  a  corner,  which,  when 
found,  were  cast  out  of  the  house  with  some  ceremony ; 
thus  the  minds  of  the  young  children  were  impressed  by 
the  peculiar  observance  required.  Perhaps  this  has  suc- 
ceeded to  the  custom  of  encouraging  the  children  to  ask 
the  meaning  of  the  sprinkling  of  the  blood  on  the  lintel  and 
posts  of  the  houses,  Exod.  xii,  26,  27.  It  has  been  already 
remarked,  that  leaven  is  spoken  of  as  an  emblem  of  malice, 
hypocrisy,  and  sensuality :  see  1  Cor.  v,  7,  8. 

The  passover  was  very  strictly  observed.  The  number 
of  persons  who  resorted  to  Jerusalem  at  this  time  was  very 
great,  as  already  stated.  The  inhabitants  gave  free  use  of 
their  rooms  to  the  strangers.  An  instance  of  this  is  in  the 
case  of  our  Saviour,  Mark  xiv,  13,  14 ;  many  might  be  ac- 
commodated in  temporary  erections.  The  rabbins  assert 
that  none  ever  said  on  this  occasion,  "  I  have  not  found  a 
bed  in  Jerusalem  to  lie  on."  The  beds  in  the  East  are 
merely  small  mattresses,  little  better  than  a  piece  of  cloth. 

In  later  times,  several  observances  were  added  to  the 
passover,  beyond  the  simple  observances  directed  in  Exod. 
xii.  The  manner  of  celebrating  it  when  our  Lord  was 
on  earth  appears  to  have  been  as  follows,  though  it  is 
not  certain  that  all  the  ceremonials  were  universally  ob- 
served : — 

1.  The  males  of  the  family  or  company,  consisting  of  not 
less  than  ten,  and  sometunes  twenty,  met  together  in  the 


210  JEWISH  NATION. 

evening,  when  they  washed  their  hands  and  feet,  and  placed 
themselves  at  table  in  the  rechning  posture  then  customary. 
In  earlier  times  they  ate  the  passover  standing,  with  their 
staves  in  their  han^s,  as  about  to  begin  a  journey,  Exod.  xii, 
1 1  ;  latterly  they  reclined  at  this,  as  at  other  meals,  to  in- 
dicate that  they  had  been  brought  into  the  promised  land 
of  their  rest.  A  cup  of  wine,  mixed  with  water,  was  pre- 
sented to  each  guest,  over  which  a  blessing  was  pronoimced, 
"  Blessed  be  He  that  created  the  fruit  of  the  vine !"  The 
lamb,  some  unleavened  bread,  and  bitter  herbs  were  then 
placed  on  the  table,  as  appointed  by  the  law,  also  other  ar- 
ticles of  food.  The  principal  person  distributed  pieces  of 
the  paschal  lamb,  with  unleavened  bread,  until  all  the  lamb 
had  been  eaten.  The  paschal  lambs  had  been  killed  in  the 
temple,  with  observances  instituted  for  the  occasion,  and 
then,  bemg  taken  to  the  respective  houses,  were  roasted  on 
spits  made  of  pomegranate  wood.  Every  person  present 
was  bound  to  eat  to  the  size  of  an  olive  at  least.  2.  Aftei 
this  first  repast  they  again  washed  their  feet,  and  replaced 
themselves  at  table,  to  eat  the  second  course,  or  repast, 
consisting  of  bitter  herbs,  with  a  kind  of  sauce  made  of 
bruised  palm-branches,  and  berries  or  raisins,  mixed  with 
vinegar.  This  sauce  was  thick ;  it  was  called  "  haroseth," 
and  was  considered  to  represent  the  tempered  clay  from 
which  their  forefathers  made  bricks  during  their  bondage  in 
Egypt.  Another  cup  of  wine  was  taken.  The  master  di 
vided  the  bread  into  two  parts,  and  laying  one  part  aside, 
covered  with  a  napkin,  he  then  blessed  the  other  and  distri 
buted  it,  saying,  "  Blessed  be  thou,  0  Lord  our  God,  tht 
King  of  the  whole  world,  in  the  eating  of  unleavenec" 
bread."  3.  He  next  took  the  reserved  part  from  the  nap- 
kin, and  divided  it  into  as  many  portions  as  there  were 
guests.  At  that  time,  or  some  think  at  a  rather  earliei 
period,  one  of  the  youngest  of  the  company  asked  the 
meaning  of  this  rite,  Exod.  xii,  26  :  "  And  it  shall  come  t( 
pass,  when  your  children  shall  say  unto  you,  What  meah 
ye  by  this  service  ?  Then  ye  shall  say.  It  is  the  sacrifice 
of  the  Lord's  passover,  who  passed  over  the  houses  of  the 
children  of  Israel  in  Egypt,  when  he  smote  the  Egyptians, 
and  delivered  our  houses."  The  master  answered  by  re- 
peating the  hagadah,  or  "  showing  forth."  "  This  is  the 
bread  of  affliction,  which  our  fathers  ate  in  the  land  of 


RITES  AND   WORSHIP.  2n 

affliction.  Let  him  that  is  hungry  come  and  eat  the  pass- 
over  ;  let  him  that  hath  need  come  and  eat  the  passover ; 
for  this  passover  is  our  Saviour  and  our  refuge."  Or,  he 
explained  the  symbolical  meaning  of  the  different  dishes 
and  observances,  expounding  from  Deut.  xxvi,  5,  "  A 
Syrian  ready  to  perish  was  my  father,"  etc.  Then  taking 
the  cup,  he  first  tasted  it  himself,  and  presented  it  to 
each,  saying,  "  Blessed  be  thou,  O  Lord  our  God,  King 
of  the  world,  who  hast  created  the  fruit  of  the  vine !" 
This  third  cup  was  usually  called  the  cup  of  blessing. 
The  apostle  refers  to  it,  1  Cor.  x,  16,  "the  cup  of  blessing 
which  we  bless,  is  it  not  the  communion  of  the  blood  of 
Christ  ?"  See  also  Psa.  cxvi,  13.  4.  The  whole  ended  with 
taking  a  fourth  cup  of  wine,  and  singing  the  1 1 3th  and  five 
following  Psalms  of  praise  and  thanksgiving,  of  which  the 
118th,  the  last,  is  peculiarly  significant  of  the  coming  of 
Christ.     These  were  called  the  great  Hallel,  or  Hallelujah. 

The  preceding  particulars  throw  considerable  light  on 
the  concise  accounts  of  the  evangelists.  The  events  of  the 
passover  and  last  supper,  blended  together,  may  be  consi- 
dered to  have  occurred  as  follows  : — 

When  the  paschal  lamb  was  dressed,  and  all  things 
were  ready,  Jesus  reclined  at  table  with  the  twelve,  and, 
according  to  Luke  xxii,  15,  he  expressed  that  he  had  earn- 
estly desired  to  eat  this  passover  with  them  before  he 
suffered.  Taking  a  cup  of  wine,  he  blessed  it,  and  told 
them  to  divide  it  among  themselves.  When  the  paschal 
supper,  or  what  is  called  the  first  course,  was  ended,  Jesus 
rose  from  the  table,  and,  to  set  them  an  example  of  humility, 
washed  their  feet  himself ;  he  also  exhorted  them  against 
seeking  who  should  be  the  greatest.  Our  Lord  then  al- 
luded to  the  traitor  Judas,  (John  xiii,  11,)  gave  them  the 
encouragement  of  a  future  glorious  reward,  Luke  xxii,  26- 
30,  and  cautioned  them  all,  especially  warning  Peter  that 
Satan  had  desired  to  sift  him. 

Having  replaced  themselves  at  table  to  eat  the  second 
course,  Christ  testified  more  plainly  than  before,  that  one 
of  them  should  betray  him,  and  said  that  it  was  he  who 
dipped  his  hand  in  the  dish  with  him.  Judas  asking,  as 
well  as  the  rest,  "  Is  it  I  ?"  Jesus  answered  that  it  was, 
but  unheard  by  the  rest.  Then  John,  instigated  by  Peter, 
inquired  who  was  meant,  and  our  Lord  told  the  beloved 


212  JEWISH  NATION. 

disciple,  who  reclined  next  him,  that  it  was  the  person  to 
whom  he  should  give  a  sop.  After  dipping  the  sop  in  the 
haroseth,  or  sauce,  he  gave  it  to  Judas,  who,  finding  him- 
self detected,  hastened  from  the  place  to  put  his  treachery 
into  execution. 

Our  Lord  then  took  the  bread  which  had  been  reserved, 
and  blessed,  and  broke,  and  gave  to  the  eleven  disciples. 
Likewise  he  took  the  cup,  and  told  them,  "  Drink  ye  all  of 
it,"  Matt-  XX vi,  27  ;  showing  by  the  words  with  which  he 
accompanied  these  actions,  that  he  instituted  a  solemn 
memorial  of  the  sacrifice  of  his  death.  He  concluded  the 
whole  by  singing  with  his  disciples  a  hymn,  or  the  psalms 
already  mentioned.  Some  principal  commentators  consi- 
der that  the  bread  was  distributed  before  Judas  left  the 
table,  but  they  generally  agree  that  he  went  out  before  the 
cup  was  given.  That  cup  our  Lord  spoke  of  as  typifying 
his  blood,  the  blood  of  the  new  covenant — the  grand  plan 
of  agreement  or  reconciliation  God  was  estabhshing  be- 
tween himself  and  mankind,  by  the  passion,  that  is,  the 
suflPering  and  death  of  his  Son,  through  whom  alone  men 
can  draw  nigh  to  God. 

Learned  men,  who  have  closely  examined  the  subject, 
have  shown  that  the  observances  of  the  Jewish  passover 
were  directly  opposed  to  several  ceremonies  common  among 
heathen  in  their  idolatrous  feasts.  And  the  passover  had 
an  especial  typical  reference  to  Christ  in  the  circumstances 
attending  it.  It  was,  1.  Descriptive  of  his  person;  2.  Of 
his  sufferings  and  death  ;  3.  Of  the  fruits  of  these  suffer- 
ings— deliverance  and  freedom ;  and  4.  Of  the  manner 
in  which  believers  are  made  partakers  of  the  blessed  fruits 
of  the  sacrifice  of  Christ ;  as  it  is  by  the  precious  blood  of 
Christ  shed  for  our  sins,  and  by  that  alone,  that  sinful  man 
is  delivered  from  the  wrath  which  his  sins  justly  deserve. 
This  subject  is  discussed  in  works  which  treat  upon  the 
types,  and  in  commentaries  on  the  Bible, 

During  the  passover,  the  sheaf  of  the  first-fruits  of  the 
barley  harvest  was  offered  with  a  particular  sacrifice :  this 
is  directed  Lev.  xxiii,  9-14.  On  the  anniversary  of  this 
day,  our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  rose  from  the  dead  ;  the  apos- 
tle Paul  may  have  had  this  specially  in  view  when  speak- 
ing of  Christ's  resurrection,  1  Cor.  xv,  20  :  "  He  is  become 
the  first-fruits  of  them  that  slept." 


RITES   AND   WORSHIP. 

¥1 


213 


FIRST-FRUITS  OFFERED. 


The  second  great  festival  was  the  feast  of  Pentecost,  a 
Greek  word,  from  the  feast  being  kept  on  the  fiftieth  day- 
after  the  first  day  of  unleavened  bread.  In  the  Bible  it  is 
spoken  of  under  several  names.  The  feast  of  weeks, 
Exod.  xxxiv,  22  ;  Deut.  xvi,  10-1'7 ;  the  feast  of  harvest, 
Exod.  xxiii,  16  ;  the  day  of  first-fruits,  Num.  xxviii,  26, 
It  was  celebrated  during  the  seventh  week,  or  a  week  of 
weeks  after  the  first  day  of  the  passover,  and  because  on 
this  day  the  first-fruits  of  the  wheat  harvest  were  presented 
with  thanksgiving  to  God  for  his  bounties  :  see  Exod. 
xxiii,  16;  Lev.  xxiii,  15-21;  Num.  xxviii,  26-31.  On 
this  day  also  the  giving  of  the  law  from  Mount  Sinai  was 
commemorated.  The  number  of  Jews  who  attended  at  the 
festival  was  very  great ;  see  Acts  ii,  5-1 1 .  At  this  season 
the  Holy  Spirit  came  miraculously  upon  the  apostles  and  the 
first-fruits  of  the  Christian  Church,  Acts  ii,  4,  41. 

On  this  occasion,  the  people  went  up  to  Jerusalem  in 
solemn  processions,  carrying  their  oflPerings  of  first-fruits ; 
many  in  baskets  richly  wrought,  and  ornamented  with 
flowers;  which  were  solemnly  presented  in  the  temple. 
The  sacrifices  at  this  festival  were  numerous,  but  we  need 
not  go  minutely  into  the  particulars.     In  Deut.  xxvi,  5-10, 


214 


JEWISH  NATION* 


/"^"^ 


THE  FIRST-FRUITS  CARRIED  UP  TO  JERUSALEM. 

is  a  beautiful  form  of  thanksgiving  to  be  used  in  presenting 
the  first-fruits,  which  reminded  the  Jews  of  their  origin  from 
"  a  Syrian  ready  to  perish,"  and  recapitulated  the  Lord's 
merciful  dealings  towards  them. 

The  feast  of  tabernacles  continued  for  a  week.  It  was 
to  keep  in  the  memory  of  the  Israelites  their  dwelling  in 
booths  or  tents  in  the  desert,  consequently  of  the  days  of 
their  pilgrimage  there  ;  thus  it  was  an  emblem  of  the  tran- 
sitory nature  of  man's  abode  upon  earth.  Lev.  xxiii,  34-43. 
It  is  also  called  the  feast  of  ingatherings,  Exod.  xxiii,  16. 
At  this  time  was  the  vintage,  and  the  gathering  of  fruits. 
The  sacrifices  for  this  occasion  a^e  directed,  Num.  xxix. 
They  were  numerous,  but  diminished  each  day  the  festival 
lasted.  In  the  whole,  seventy  bullocks,  fourteen  rams, 
seven  goats,  and  ninety-eight  lambs  were  offered  during  the 
seven  days.  During  this  week  the  people  were  to  dwell  in 
tents,  or  in  arbors,  of  branches  of  trees,  which  latterly  were 
made  upon  the  flat  roofs  of  their  houses.  They  carried 
branches  of  palm  and  of  other  trees,  singing,  "  Hosanna  !*' 
that  is,  "  Save,  I  beseech  thee  !"  Lev.  xxiii,  40 ;  Neh.  viii,  15. 
This  festival  was  celebrated  with  especial  rejoicings.  But 
the  most  remarkable  of  the  later  ceremonies  was  the  pour- 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  216 

ing  out  water  upon  the  altar.  A  golden  pitcher  was  filled 
at  the  pool  of  Siloam,  and  brought  into  the  temple,  through 
the  water-gate,  with  much  ceremony.  The  water  was  then 
mixed  with  wine,  and  poured  upon  the  sacrifice  as  it  lay 
upon  the  altar.  It  seems  to  have  been  adopted  as  an  em- 
blem of  future  blessings,  perhaps  in  allusion  to  Isa.  xii,  3. 
It  might  have  reference  to  the  water  that  flowed  from  the 
rock  in  the  wilderness,  and  to  the  blessing  of  future  rains 
sohcited  on  this  occasion ;  but  the  devout  Jews  also  con- 
sidered water  emblematical  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  and  in  their 
writings  referring  to  this  custom,  say,  "  Why  is  it  called  the 
place  of  drawing  ?  Because  from  thence  ye  draw  the  Holy 
Spirit ;  as  it  is  written.  And  ye  shall  draw  water  with  joy 
from  the  fountains  of  salvation."  The  rejoicing  on  this  oc- 
casion was  such  as  to  cause  a  saying,  "  He  that  never  saw 
the  rejoicing  of  the  drawing  of  water,  never  saw  rejoicing 
in  all  his  life."  Upon  this  day,  they  read  the  last  section 
of  the  law,  and  also  began  the  first,  lest  they  should  appear 
more  glad  to  end  these  readings  than  willing  to  begin  them. 
It  was  upon  this  day,  the  last,  or  the  great  day  of  the  feast, 
that  our  blessed  Lord  stood  forth  in  the  temple,  and  spake 
with  a  loud  voice  the  animated  and  very  expressive  decla- 
ration, implying  that  the  Holy  Spirit  should  be  his  gift, 
(John  vii,  3*7,  38,)  "  If  any  man  thirst,  let  him  come  unto 
me  and  drink.  He  that  believeth  on  me,  as  the  Scripture 
has  said,  out  of  his  belly"  (or  rather  from  his  heart)  "shall 
flow  rivers- of  living  water." 

The  people  attended  the  sacrifices,  heard  the  traditions 
expounded,  and  listened  to  the  vocal  and  instrumental  music 
of  the  psalmody ;  even  the  gravest  among  the  men  leaped 
and  danced  in  the  temple  courts  on  this  occasion.  The 
rabbins  say  this  custom  was  founded  on  the  act  of  David, 
2  Sam.  vi,  14  ;  but  his  movements  in  the  procession  which 
accompanied  the  ark  must  have  widely  differed  from  the 
indecorous  display  of  the  Jews  in  later  days.  These  re- 
joicings were  continued  to  a  late  hour,  and  the  court  of  the 
women  was  splendidly  lighted  up.  Each  person  had  a 
luleb,  formed  of  some  branches  of  willow,  bound  up  with 
pieces  of  palm  and  myrtle,  and  carried  a  pome-citron,  or 
fruit  of  the  citron-tree,  somewhat  resembling  a  large  orange, 
in  his  hand.  The  lulebs  were  carried  home  to  their  houses, 
and  brought  again  on  the  day  following.     Maimonides  con- 


216  JEWISH  NATION. 

siders  that  these  branches  were  intended  for  a  sign  of  joy 
on  account  of  the  deliverance  of  the  IsraeHtes  from  the 
desert,  a  place  destitute  of  fruits  and  seed. 

Two  other  festivals  were  directed  in  the  law,  although 
the  celebration  require^  was  not  so  general  as  upon  the 
occasions  already  mentioned.  The  first  was  the  feast  of 
TRUMPETS,  so  Called  from  the  trumpets  being  blown  with 
more  than  usual  solemnity ;  and  it  may  be  considered  as 
typical  or  emblematical  of  the  publishing  the  Gospel,  Num. 
xxix,  1-6  ;  Lev,  xxiii,  24,  25.  The  other  was  the  feast,  or 
rather  the  fast,  of  expiation ;  the  great  day  of  atonement, 
on  which  day  the  people  were  forbidden  to  eat  food.  Mai- 
monides  speaks  of  it  as  a  day  wholly  devoted  to  repentance 
and  Divine  worship,  to  be  entirely  spent  in  confessing  and 
forsaking  sin.  The  sacrifice  on  this  day  was  more  solemn 
than  any  other.  It  was  offered  by  the  high  priest  alone, 
for  the  sins  of  the  whole  nation  during  the  preceding  year. 
The  law  respecting  it  is  given  Ley.  xvi,  which  chapter  the 
reader  should  now  peruse.  We  will  describe  the  proceed- 
ings of  this  day  as  observed  in  the  later  times  of  the  Jews. 
The  high  priest  left  his  house  and  family  seven  days  before, 
and  lived  in  a  chamber  in  the  court  of  Israel :  a  substitute 
also  was  appointed,  lest  anything  should  occur  to  render 
him  unable  to  discharge  the  duties  of  this  great  day.  Twice 
during  this  interval  he  was  sprinkled  with  water  in  which 
ashes  of  the  red  heifer  had  been  steeped,  lest  he  might  un- 
knowingly have  been  defiled  by  some  dead  body.  During 
this  interval  he  practiced  the  duties  he  would  have  to  per- 
form on  that  day,  and  studied  the  directions  for  the  ser- 
vices. He  was  solemnly  adjured  not  to  alter  anything  as 
to  buiTiing  the  incense ;  a  high  priest,  of  the  sect  of  the 
Sadducees,  having  once  ventured  to  light  it  before  he  went 
within  the  veil.  On  the  day  before  the  solemnity  took 
place,  he  might  eat  plentifully,  to  prepare  himself  to  sup- 
port the  ensuing  fast,  but  he  must  not  sleep  during  the 
night.  He  either  read  and  expounded  the  Scriptures,  or 
listened  to  others ;  the  parts  usually  selected  were  Chroni- 
cles, Ezra,  Job,  or  Daniel.  Upon  this  day,  according  to 
the  later  Jews,  the  high  priest  was  permitted  to  pronounce 
the  word  Jehovah,  the  peculiar  name  of  God,  which  they 
did  not  allow  any  one  to  pronounce  except  the  high  priest, 
and  him  only  on  this  day. 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  217 

We  now  come  to  the  duties  of  the  high  priest  on  the 
great  day  of  atonement.  Early  in  the  morning  he  bathed, 
and  arrayed  himself  in  the  rich  garments  of  his  office  ;  then, 
proceeding  to  the  court,  he  washed  his  hands  and  feet  at 
the  laver.  During  this  day  he  bathed  his  whole  body  five 
times,  and  washed  his  hands  and  feet  ten  times.  He  then 
killed  the  morning  sacrifice,  laid  the  pieces  on  the  fire, 
trimmed  the  lamps  in  the  holy  place,  offered  the  incense, 
and  blessed  the  people  from  the  steps  of  the  porch.  The 
usual  morning  service  being  concluded,  he  proceeded  to 
offer  the  sacrifices  peculiar  to  the  day — a  bullock,  a  ram, 
and  seven  lambs  for  a  burnt-offering,  with  meat-offerings, 
and  a  kid  for  a  sin-offering.  He  then  again  washed  his 
hands  and  feet  at  the  laver. 

As  it  was  a  fast  day,  the  people  did  not  return  home, 
but  the  public  services  were  continued  without  intermission. 
The  high  priest  again  bathed  his  whole  body,  and  put  on 
the  white  linen  dress  usually  worn  by  priests,  thus  showing 
that  when  he  appeared  as  a  sinner,  to  expiate  his  own  sins 
and  the  sins  of  the  people,  he  was  to  be  arrayed  in  an  hum- 
ble dress,  and  that  there  is  no  distinction  of  persons  before 
God  ;  also  that  he  then  acted,  not  in  his  peculiar  character 
of  high  priest,  but  as  the  representative  of  the  congrega- 
tion. Having  again  washed  at  the  laver,  he  proceeded  to 
the  north  side  of  the  altar,  where  he  found  more  animals 
ready  to  be  sacrificed.  The  first  were  the  sin-offerings : 
the  bullock  for  his  own  sins  and  those  of  the  priests,  and 
the  two  kids  of  the  goats  for  the  congregation.  Placing 
his  hand  upon  the  head  of  the  bullock,  he  turned  towards 
the  holy  place,  and  prayed  as  follows  : — "  0  Lord,  I  have 
sinned,  done  perversely,  and  transgressed  before  thee,  I  and 
my  house.  I  beseech  thee,  O  Lord,  expiate  the  sins,  per- 
versities, and  transgressions  whereby  I  have  sinned,  done 
perversely,  and  transgressed,  I  and  my  house,  as  it  is  written 
in  the  law  of  Moses  thy  servant,  saying.  For  on  this  day  he 
will  expiate  for  you,  to  purge  you  from  all  your  sins  before 
the  Lord,  that  ye  may  be  clean."  The  attending  ministers 
added,  "  Blessed  be  the  glorious  name  of  his  kingdom  for- 
ever and  ever  !'* 

The  high  priest  then  went  to  the  north-east  corner,  and 
the  kids  were  placed  one  on  his  right  and  the  other  on  his 
left  hand.  Two  pieces  of  gold,  one  inscribed,  "  For  the 
10 


218  JEWISH   NATION. 

Lord,"  the  other,  "  For  Azazel,"  were  put  mto  a  box ;  the 
high  priest  drew  forth  one  with  each  hand,  and  the  goat  on 
the  hand  in  which  was  the  lot  of  Azazel  became  the  scape- 
goat, and  a  scarlet  Hst  was  tied  on  his  forehead.  The 
Jewish  tradition  is,  that  this  cloth  frequently  became  white 
when  tied  on  the  goat,  but  that  it  never  changed  during 
the  last  forty  years  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem. 
This  is  noticed  by  some  with  reference  to  the  manner  in 
which  the  Jews,  about  that  period,  imprecated  the  blood 
of  Christ  to  be  on  themselves  and  on  their  children.  Matt, 
xxvii,  25.  The  other  goat  was  then  taken  to  the  rings. 
The  high  priest,  having  repeated  his  confession,  killed  the 
bullock,  and  gave  a  vessel  with  some  of  the  blood  to  a  priest, 
who  carried  it  to  the  top  of  the  steps  of  the  porch,  stirring 
the  blood  to  prevent  its  congealing. 

The  high  priest  next  took  from  the  altar  a  censer  of  coals, 
and  ascended  the  steps  of  the  porch,  carrying  also  a  plate 
with  incense,  while  the  people  anxiously  prayed  for  him. 
He  crossed  the  porch  and  the  holy  place,  and,  opening  the 
veils,  entered  the  holy  of  holies.  This  day  was  the  only 
time  during  the  year  when  that  sacred  place  was  entered 
by  any  one.  Standing  before  the  ark,  the  high  priest  placed 
the  censer  on  the  floor,  and  with  his  hands  put  the  incense 
upon  the  fire.  When  the  place  was  filled  with  smoke,  he 
retired  backwards  till  he  was  without  the  veil,  uttering  a 
short,  but  lifeless  formulary  for  national  prosperity.  He 
then  fetched  the  blood,  and  sprinkled  it  eight  times  before 
the  ark,  and  lea\^ng  the  burnmg  censer,  retired  to  the  holy 
place,  where  he  set  down  the  rest  of  the  blood,  and  then 
returned  to  the  court  of  the  priests.  He  then  sacrificed  the 
goat,  and  sprinkled  the  blood  in  the  same  manner.  During 
this  time  no  person  was  allowed  to  come  beyond  the  altar. 
The  typical  nature  of  the  services  of  this  day  will  be  noticed 
presently ;  but  we  may  here  remark,  from  Outram,  that,  as 
the  high  priest  thus  carried  the  blood,  which  is  the  vehicle 
of  the  life  or  sensitive  soul  of  the  victims,  into  the  innermost 
sanctuary,  and  sprinkled  it  towards  the  mercy- seat ;  so  our 
High  Priest  in  the  heaven  itself,  which  that  sanctuary  pre- 
figured, presents  not  only  the  soul,  but  the  body  of  the 
victim  that  was  slain  for  our  sins.  Christ  has  appeared  in 
the  character  of  the  High  Priest,  as  well  as  in  that  of  the 
offering,  Heb.  ix,  11,  14,  24-26. 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  219 

The  next  process  was  to  make  atonement  for  the  holy 
place,  by  sprinkling  the  blood  of  the  bullock  and  the  goat, 
first  separately,  and  then  mixed  together,  before  the  veil, 
and  upon  the  altar  of  incense.  Then,  crossing  the  court  of 
the  priests,  he  made  atonement  for  that  place,  by  pouring 
out  the  rest  of  the  blood  at  the  south-west  corner.  The 
great  altar  was  not  sprinkled  like  that  of  incense ;  perhaps 
from  being  considered  to  be  so  holy  as  to  sanctify  every 
offering  laid  upon  it,  (see  Exod.  xxix,  37 ;  Matt,  xxiii,  19,)  it 
was  not  thought  to  need  any  pmification. 

The  time  now  came  for  sending  away  the  scape-goat,  as 
a  type  of  Him  who  bare  away  our  infinnities,  and  carried 
off  our  diseases,  Matt,  viii,  1 7  ;  Isa.  liii,  4.  The  high  priest 
proceeded  to  the  place  where  the  scape-goat  still  stood,  and, 
with  the  stationary  men,  confessed  over  it  the  sins  of  the 
people,  placing  their  hands  upon  its  head.  It  was  then 
given  to  a  person  who,  accompanied  by  others,  led  it  forth 
to  a  high  and  steep  rock,  about  twelve  miles  from  Jerusalem. 
Ten  booths  were  erected  on  the  road  thither,  at  equal  dis- 
tances, and  in  each  of  them  persons  were  placed.  The  man 
in  charge  of  the  goat  was  delivered  over  to  each  company 
in  succession,  meat  and  drink  being  offered  to  him  at  each 
station.  The  company  from  the  last  booth  stopped  at  a  dis- 
tance from  the  rock,  while  the  man  who  led  the  goat  un- 
bound the  scarlet  cloth,  and  tore  it  into  two,  replacing  one 
half  between  the  horns  of  the  animal,  and  fixing  the  other 
piece  to  the  rock ;  then  pushing  the  goat  backwards,  to  pre- 
vent its  leaping,  he  tumbled  the  animal  over  the  rock,  and 
it  was  dashed  to  pieces  by  the  fall.  The  person  appointed 
to  discharge  this  duty  returned  to  the  nearest  booth,  and 
remained  there  till  the  evening,  when  he  bathed,  and  washed 
his  clothes,  and  went  back  to  the  city.  Maimonides  thus 
speaks  of  this  ceremonial : — "  The  scape-goat  expiates  all  the 
sins  mentioned  in  the  law,  whether  hght  or  heavy,  whether 
committed  through  contumacy  or  error,  whether  done  ig- 
norantly  or  knowingly.  Every  one  who  repents  is  thus 
atoned  for  by  the  scape-goat ;  but  if  any  one  do  not  repent, 
then  only  his  lighter  transgressions  are  expiated  by  the 
scape-goat."  Surely  Christians  should  learn  to  look  to  Him 
who  was  typified  by  the  scape-goat. 

Meanwhile  the  priest  disposed  of  the  carcasses  of  the  sin- 
offerings  ;  only  the  fat  was  burned  upon  the  altar,  the  rest 


220  JEWISH   NATION. 

being  burned  without  the  city,  as  directed  Lev.  viii,  1*7,  by- 
some  of  the  priests,  who  also  bathed  and  washed  their 
clothes  before  their  return. 

At  the  time  when  they  supposed  that  the  man  with  the 
scape-goat  had  gone  three  miles  from  Jerusalem,  the  high 
priest  entered  a  pulpit  in  the  court  of  the  women,  and  read 
Lev.  xvi  and  xxiii,  27-32,  the  passages  in  the  law  concern- 
ing the  solemnity.  He  also  repeated  eight  short  prayers. 
Then,  returning  to  the  inner  court,  he  washed  his  hands  and 
feet  at  the  laver,  went  again  to  a  chamber  on  the  north 
side,  where  he  bathed  and  put  on  his  rich  garments,  and 
again  washed  his  hands  and  feet  at  the  laver ;  this  being 
required  of  every  priest  each  time  he  quitted  the  court  and 
re-entered  it.     He  then  offered  two  rams  for  a  burnt-offering. 

By  this  time  the  hour  for  the  evening  service  had  arrived, 
and  when  it  was  offered,  the  high  priest  again  washed  and 
bathed,  and,  putting  on  his  plain  garments,  washed  and 
went  into  the  holy  of  holies  a  fourth  time,  to  bring  away 
the  censer  and  incense  plate.  His  being  said  to  enter  once, 
(Heb.  ix,  12,)  has  reference  to  his  entering  only  one  day  in 
the  year.  He  again  washed,  bathed,  put  on  his  rich  gar- 
ments, washed,  and  went  into  the  holy  place  to  offer  the 
evening  incense  and  trim  the  lamps.  Then  washing  for  the 
last  time,  the  high  priest  laid  aside  his  rich  apparel  and  re- 
tired to  his  own  house,  accompanied  by  the  multitude,  who 
rejoiced  that  God  had  not  mingled  his  blood  with  that  of 
the  sacrifices. 

Thus  ended  this  solemn  ceremonial,  and  there  is  much  in 
it  that  deserves  serious  attention.  It  was  a  day  of  fasting 
for  national  humiliation,  and  surely  other  nations  ought  to 
copy  the  example  statedly,  and  humble  themselves  before 
the  Lord.  The  scape-goat,  figuratively  bearing  away  the 
iniquities  of  the  people,  reminds  us  of  the  Saviour,  who  bare 
the  sins  and  sorrows  of  the  people,  as  the  burnt- offerings 
remind  us  of  Christ's  sufferings;  while  the  high  priest's 
offering  for  himself  as  well  as  others,  reminds  us  that  all 
mankind  have  sinned,  and  come  short  of  the  glory  of  God. 
But  the  solemn  entrance  of  the  high  priest  into  the  most 
holy  place  was  especially  to  represent  Jesus,  the  Great  High 
Priest  of  our  profession,  who,  when  by  the  one  offering  up  of 
himself  he  had  made  expiation  for  sin,  entered  into  heaven 
itself,  with  his  ovm  blood,  having  obtained  eternal  redemp- 


KITES  AND  WORSHIP.  221 

tion  for  all  his  people,  there  to  appear  m  the  presence  of 
God  for  them,  and  to  make  continual  intercession  for  them, 
Heb.  ix,  24-28.  The  apostle  (Heb.  ix,  x)  declares  how 
much  the  intercession  of  Christ  was  superior  to  that  of  any 
mere  man ;  also  that  sacrifices  of  bullocks  and  goats  were 
only  of  avail  to  take  away  ceremonial  pollution,  for  it  was 
not  possible  these  should  atone  for  sin.  Hence  the  apostle, 
writing  under  the  inspiration  of  the  Holy  Spirit,  concludes, 
"  If  the  blood  of  bulls  and  of  goats,  and  the  ashes  of  an 
heifer  sprinkling  the  unclean,  sanctifieth  to  the  purifying  of 
the  flesh :  how  much  more  shall  the  blood  of  Christ,  who, 
through  the  eternal  Spirit,  offered  himself  without  spot  to 
God,  purge  "  the  believer's  "  conscience  from  dead  works," 
(deeds  deserving  of  death,)  "  to  serve  the  living  God,"  Heb. 
ix,  13,  14.  Here  again  remark,  with  Outram,  the  manner 
in  which  Christ  united  in  his  own  person  the  various  parts 
of  this  typical  service — as  Offerer,  as  Victim,  and  as  High 
Priest.  He  offered  himself  willingly  in  our  behalf,  both  as 
ofierer  and  offering ;  he  was  the  victim  slain ;  and  he  was 
both  the  High  Priest  and  the  slain  victim  when  he  entered 
the  heavenly  sanctuary,  where  he  now  ^pleads  for  us. 

After  the  captivity,  the  Jews  instituted  other  fast  and 
feast  days,  in  addition  to  those  prescribed  by  the  law.  The 
two  principal  were  the  feast  of  purim,  and  that  of  the  dedi- 
cation. The  feast  of  purim,  or  lots,  was  to  commemorate 
the  deliverance  of  the  Jews  from  the  plot  of  Haman,  for 
their  extirpation,  as  recorded  in  the  Book  of  Esther.  One 
day  was  kept  as  a  fast,  in  reference  to  the  day  on  which  the 
Jews  were  to  have  been  destroyed,  the  two  following  as 
feasts  for  their  deliverance.  This  is  still  observed ;  but 
there  are  no  particulars  as  to  the  manner  in  which  it  was 
celebrated  in  the  temple. 

The  feast  of  dedication  was  appointed  by  Judas  Macca- 
beus, as  a  new  consecration  of  the  temple,  after  it  had  been 
polluted  by  Antiochus  Epiphanes,  who  destroyed  the  books 
of  the  law,  plundered  the  temple,  and  even  erected  an  altar 
on  the  top  of  the  great  altar,  where  he  caused  a  sow  to  be 
sacrificed,  and  sprinkled  the  courts  and  temple  with  broth 
of  swine's  flesh  ;  thus  rendering  them  as  defiled  as  it  was 
possible  to  be,  in  the  view  of  the  Je^^ish  people.  This  de- 
filed altar  was  taken  down  by  the  Maccabees,  and  the 
stones  laid  up  in  a  chamber  at  the  north-west  part  of  the 


222  JEWISH  NATION. 

court  of  Israel.  A  new  one  was  built,  and  the  hallowed 
furniture  again  supplied.  The  re-dedication  then  took 
place,  B.C.  170.  The  festival  continued  eight  days;  but 
the  cliief  distinctive  observances  were,  singing  the  hallel,  or 
Psalms  113  to  118,  on  the  first  day,  with  a  general  illumi- 
nation for  eight  successive  nights.  The  rabbins  connected 
with  it  a  stoiy  of  a  miraculous  increase  of  the  temple  oil 
after  Antiochus  had  been  overcome.  This  festival  is  no- . 
ticed,  John  x,  22,  from  whence  it  appears  that  our  Lord 
sanctioned  it  by  his  presence,  and  that  it  took  place  in  the 
winter. 

The  festival  of  the  Sabbatical  year  claims  attention  else- 
where, in  connection  with  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath- 
day  ;  and  the  feasts  connected  with  the  new  moons,  and  the 
beginning  of  the  year,  come  under  view  when  noticing  the 
spiritual  worship  of  the  Jews, 


CHAPTER  XII. 

MISCELLANEOUS  OBSERVANCES. 

USE    OP    SALT—CIRCUMCISION— LAWS  AGAINST  NECRO- 
MANCY— THE  RED  HEIFER — CLEANSING  THE  LEPER. 

In  Lev.  ii,  13,  is  an  injunction,  "  With  all  thine  offerings 
thou  shalt  offer  salt."  Salt  was  an  emblem  of  friendship 
and  faithfulness,  and  was  used  in  their  sacrifices,  and  in 
their  covenants  which  were  confirmed  by  sacrifices,  as  a 
token  of  confirmation:  see  Lev.  ii,  13;  Num.  xviii,  19; 
2  Chron.  xiii,  5.  In  the  latter  passage,  Abijah  speaks  of 
the  covenant  or  promise  sent  to  David  by  the  prophet  Na- 
than, as  an  assurance  by  a  covenant  of  salt.  In  the  figu- 
rative language  of  Scripture,  salt  denotes  that  incorruption 
of  mind,  and  sincerity  of  grace,  which  is  necessary  in  all 
who  would  present  an  acceptable  offering  to  God,  as  well 
as  hold  communion  with  him  in  the  exercises  of  worship. 

Large  quantities  of  salt  were  used  in  the  temple  with  the 
sacrifices  ;  it  was  chiefly  rock  or  earth  salt,  which  abounds 
in  several  places  in  the  neighborhood  of  Judea ;  and  nothing 
can  be  more  solitary  or  desolate  than  these  districts, — even 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  223 

the  birds  and  beasts  shun  them.  The  sentence  denounced 
against  idolatrous  Judah  (Jer.  xvii,  6)  was,  that  her  land 
should  be  as  desolate  as  one  of  these  dreary  wastes.  This 
salt  loses  its  savor  by  exposure  to  the  air ;  it  was  then  scat- 
tered over  the  marble  pavement  of  the  temple,  to  render  it 
less  slippery  in  wet  weather.  Our  Saviour  is  supposed  to 
refer  thereto,  Matt,  v,  13  ;  and  his  words  present  an  affect- 
ing caution,  as  well  as  an  encouragement  to  every  professing 
Christian.  "  Ye  are  the  salt  of  the  earth,"  preserving  it 
from  being  destroyed  through  the  corruptions  of  the  wicked, 
but  justly  cast  forth  as  worthless  refuse,  if  that  great  ob- 
ject is  not  duly  attended  to  by  you.  With  respect  to  the 
confirmation  of  covenants,  if  an  Arab  gives  a  traveler  salt, 
he  may  be  assured  of  his  protection.  It  is  related  of  an 
Arab  robber,  that  having  broken  into  a  palace,  he  was 
about  to  depart  with  a  considerable  booty,  when  he  kicked 
something  with  his  foot  in  the  dark  ;  on  putting  it  to  his 
mouth  he  found  it  was  a  lump  of  salt.  Considering  that 
he  had,  though  unintentionally,  partaken  of  the  salt  of  the 
owner  of  the  property,  he  laid  down  the  articles  he  had 
collected,  and  hastened  from  the  spot. 

The  Jews,  in  Scripture,  are  frequently  called  the  circum- 
cision, in  allusion  to  their  being  the  chosen  people  of  God, 
the  descendants  of  Abraham,  and  taken  into  covenant  with 
Jehovah  :  see  Gen.  xvii,  4-8, — "  Thou  shalt  be  a  father  of 
many  nations.  Neither  shall  thy  name  any  more  be  called 
Abram,  but  thy  name  shall  be  Abraham ;  for  a  father  of 
many  nations  have  I  made  thee.  And  I  will  make  thee 
exceeding  fruitful,  and  I  will  make  nations  of  thee ;  and 
kings  shall  come  out  of  thee.  And  I  will  establish  my  co- 
venant between  me  and  thee,  and  thy  seed  after  thee,  in 
their  generations,  for  an  everlasting  covenant ;  to  be  a  God 
unto  thee,  and  to  thy  seed  after  thee.  And  I  will  give 
unto  thee,  and  to  thy  seed  after  thee,  the  land  wherein 
thou  art  a  stranger,  all  the  land  of  Canaan,  for  an  ever- 
lasting possession ;  and  I  will  be  their  God." 

Circumcision  was  ordained  as  a  token  of  this  covenant, 
and  Abraham  and  his  descendants  were  to  be  circumcised, 
as  a  token  of  their  partaking  its  benefits,  and  that  the  re- 
membrance of  it  might  not  be  forgotten.  But  the  freeness 
of  the  grace  of  justification,  which  was  promised  to  Abra- 


224  JEWISH    NATION. 

ham  and  all  his  spiritual  seed  by  this  covenant,  preceded 
the  institution  of  the  rite  of  circumcision.  This  point  is 
strongly  pressed  by  St.  Paul,  in  Rom.  iv.  The  apostle 
also  shows  the  spiritual  or  mystical  intent  of  this  ordinance, 
by  teaching  that  as  he  is  not  a  Jew  who  is  only  one  out- 
wardly, so  neither  is  that  (the  true)  circumcision  which  is 
outward  in  the  flesh ;  but  "he  is  a  Jew,"  or  true  Israehte, 
"  who  is  one  inwardly,  and  circumcision  is  that  of  the 
heart,  in  the  spirit,  and  not  in  the  letter ;  whose  praise  is 
not  of  men,  but  of  God,"  Rom.  ii,  28,  29  ;  see  Col.  ii,  11. 

The  Jews,  when  boasting  of  their  privileges,  often  called 
themselves  "the  circumcision,"  and  spoke  of  the  Gentiles 
with  contempt  as  the  uncircumcised.  It  was  the  sign  or 
mark  of  their  profession  as  worshipers  of  the  true  God ; 
and  no  Jew,  without  this,  could  be  admitted  to  partake  of 
the  passover,  Exod.  xii,  48.  Thus  it  was  enforced  as  an 
observance  of  the  Levitical  dispensation ;  and  thus  Christ 
ascribes  the  institution  of  circumcision  to  Moses,  though  it 
was  derived  from  the  patriarchs,  John  vii,  22.  It  was  a 
rite  suited  to  teach  the  obligations  of  a  holy  nation,  to  seek 
for  purity  of  heart  and  holiness  of  life. 

A  proselyte  of  the  covenant  was  a  stranger,  who  re- 
nounced idolatry,  and  had  been  circumcised,  and  thereby 
was  pledged  to  keep  the  whole  of  the  ceremonial  as  well  as 
the  moral  law.  These  were  called  proselytes  of  righteous- 
ness. A  proselyte  of  the  gate  was  a  stranger  who  so- 
journed among  the  Jews — "  the  stranger  that  is  within  thy 
gates,"  Deut.  xiv,  21.  He  worshiped  Jehovah  as  the  only 
true  God,  and  received  the  moral  law ;  but  he  was  not  cir- 
cumcised, nor  engaged  to  the  ritual  and  ceremonial  obser- 
vances. Of  this  description  probably  were  "  the  devout 
men  who  feared  God,"  frequently  mentioned  in  the  New 
Testament,  particularly  Cornelius,  Acts  x,  1.  They  were 
bound  to  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath. 

The  rite  of  circumcision  was  to  be  performed  when  the 
child  was  eight  days  old,  even  though  that  day  might  fall 
upon  the  Sabbath,  John  vii,  22  ;  and  it  is  considered  that  it 
was  then  customary  to  name  the  child  :  see  respecting  John 
the  Baptist  and  Jesus,  Luke  i,  59 ;  ii,  21 ;  where  we  read 
how  Simeon  took  the  child  Jesus  in  his  arms  and  blessed 
him.  At  the  institution  of  this  rite  Abram's  name  was 
changed  to  Abraham. 


RITES  AND    WOKSMIP.  225 

In  later  times,  the  Jews  introduced  superstitious  and  un- 
necessary observances  into  this  as  well  as  other  rites.  One 
was  to  leave  a  seat  empty  for  the  prophet  Elijah,  who  was 
supposed  to  be  present,  though  not  visible.  The  whole  ob- 
servance became  unnecessary,  when  the  ceremonial  law  was 
done  away  by  the  coming  of  Christ,  and  the  Christian  dis- 
pensation was  set  forth.  There  are  frequent  references  to 
this  in  the  writings  of  the  apostles ;  for  many  Jewish  Chris- 
tians were  still  attached  to  their  old  rites,  and  endeavored 
to  enforce  the  observance  of  them,  especially  circumcision, 
which  was  the  first,  and  as  it  were  the  bond  or  pledge  to 
all  the  rest.  But  the  apostles,  particularly  St.  Paul,  ear- 
nestly contended  against  the  observance  of  this  rite  by  the 
Gentiles ;  knowing  that,  if  liberty  should  be  permitted  in 
this  respect,  their  Christian  liberty  as  to  all  ceremonial  ob- 
servances could  no  longer  be  opposed.  The  question  was 
solemnly  considered  by  the  apostles  and  the  rest  of  the 
Church  at  Jerusalem,  as  is  recorded  Acts  xv,  when  the  as- 
sembly followed  the  view  taken  by  the  apostle  James,  that 
the  observance  of  this  rite  was  not  to  be  required  from 
Gentile  converts.  Then  the  preachers  of  the  Gospel  seem 
to  have  gone  forth  with  renewed  activity  and  success.  Yet, 
while  the  temple  stood,  many  Christians  who  were  of  Jew- 
ish extraction  seem  to  have  considered  it  requisite  that  they 
and  their  children  should  observe  the  ordinances  of  the 
ceremonial  law.  St.  Paul  caused  Timothy  to  be  circum- 
cised, his  mother  being  a  Jewess,  Acts  xvi,  1-3 ;  and  the 
apostle  himself  declared  before  Festus,  that  he  had  not 
done  anything  contrary  to  the  law  of  the  Jews.  An  attempt 
to  confirm  this  point,  that  he  "  walked  orderly  and  kept  the 
law,"  in  which  perhaps  there  was  some  departure  from 
Christian  simplicity,  gave  rise  to  the  tumultuous  scenes  _ 
that  ended  in  the  apostle  being  sent  to  Rome  as  a  prisoner : 
see  Acts  xxi.  It  is  best  always  to  act  with  simplicity  as 
well  as  with  truth,  and  not  even  in  appearance  to  lay  stress 
upon  things  which  in  our  hearts  we  believe  are  indifferent. 

It  is  plain  also  that  Moses,  from  the  first  promulgation 
of  the  law,  directed  the  attention  of  the  Jews  to  the  spirit- 
ual import  of  this  rite :  see  Deut.  x,  16  ;  xxx,  6.  The  lat- 
ter verse  is  a  promise,  as  follows  :  "  And  the  Lord  thy  God 
will  circumcise  thine  heart,  and  the  heart  of  thy  seed,  to 
love  the  Lord  thy  God  with  all  thine  heart,  and  with  all 
10* 


226  JEWISH  NATION. 

thy  soul,  that  thou  mayest  Hve."  It  indicated  the  putting 
off  the  body  of  the  sins  of  the  flesh,  Col.  ii,  11;  and  the 
prophets  frequently  reproached  the  disobedient  Jews  as 
uncircumcised  in  heart. 

At  the  admission  of  full  proselytes,  who  were  called 
proselytes  of  righteousness,  circumcision,  baptism,  and  the 
offering  of  sacrifices  were  customary.  The  two  latter  were 
required  of  women  as  well  as  men.  The  baptisms  or  wash- 
ings were  accompanied  with  some  ceremonies,  and  are  sup- 
posed to  be  alluded  to  by  the  apostle  Paul,  Heb.  vi,  2,  and 
elsewhere.  A  proselyte  was  required  :  1.  To  come  willingly; 
neither  force  nor  fraud  might  be  employed.  2.  Perfectly 
to  renounce  errors  and  idolatry,  and  entirely  to  separate 
from  former  friends :  the  Jews  called  proselytism  a  new 
birth,  and  our  Lord  showed  that  men  must  be  born  again, 
not  only  of  water,  but  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  John  iii,  5. 
3.  Submission  to  the  law  given  by  Moses.  4.  An  engage- 
ment to  continue  faithful  to  death. 

Another  point  respecting  the  ritual  or  ceremonial  law, 
noticed  by  Lowman,  must  here  be  briefly  adverted  to.  The 
ritual  law  clearly  denotes  the  belief  in  the  immortality  of 
the  soul,  and  the  separate  existence  of  departed  spirits,  as 
the  general  belief  of  the  whole  nation.  This  is  also  ex- 
pressed by  the  laws  against  consulting  the  dead ;  but  es- 
pecially by  the  strict  enactments  against  the  idolatrous  cus- 
toms of  their  neighbors,  either  in  regarding  tlie  souls  of 
dead  men  as  demigods,  or  in  worshiping  demons  as  the 
guardians  of  mortal  men.  Not  only  are  there  direct  laws 
against  these  observances,  but  the  whole  of  the  Jewish  rites 
evidently  are  framed  so  as  positively  to  exclude  any  such 
^  doctrines.  Nothing  is  more  expressly  set  forth,  than  that 
no  attention  must  be  paid  to  any  belief  in  a  class  of  inferior 
deities,  wherewith  heathen  worship  abounds.  This  is  strongly 
implied  in  the  regulations  which  precluded  all  undue  respect 
to  the  dead  :  see  Lev.  xix,  28.  The  excess  to  which  funeral 
honors  were  carried  among  the  heathen,  by  an  easy  transi- 
tion, led  to  deifying  the  objects  of  this  respect ;  the  very 
same  feehng  led  to  the  canonizing  of  dead  men,  and  the 
worship  of  saints,  in  the  Church  of  Rome  and  in  the  Greek 
Church. 

Among  the  ritual  observances  of  the  Jewish  law  was  the 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  227 

consecration  of  the  ashes  of  the  red  heifer,  and  the  use 
made  of  them  by  mixing  them  with  water,  to  be  employed 
for  the  ceremonial  purifications,  by  sprinkling  the  unclean. 
This  is  of  importance,  for  the  rite  certainly  had  direct  refer- 
ence to  Christ  and  things  done  under  the  Gospel.  It  has 
been  well  remarked,  that  the  water  used  for  purifying  owed 
even  its  typical  qualities  to  the  ashes  of  the  heifer  mixed 
with  it.  St.  Paul  makes  a  distinct  allusion  to  it  in  the 
Epistle  to  the  Hebrews,  chap,  ix,  13, 14.  In  Numbers  xix, 
the  reader  will  find  a  full  account  of  this  ritual  observance, 
and  the  various  purposes  for  which  the  ashes  were  to  be 
used.  To  these  ceremonials  the  later  Jews  made  very  con- 
siderable additions.  Many  rules  were  appointed  for  guid- 
ance in  selecting  the  heifer,  which  was  shut  up  seven  days 
before  the  sacrifice.  The  priest  appointed  to  oflSciate  was 
prepared  by  a  variety  of  ceremonials,  and  the  animal  was 
sacrificed  on  the  side  of  the  valley  of  Kedron,  toward  the 
Mount  of  Olives.  The  heifer  being  killed  and  burned,  the 
ashes  were  gathered  up  with  great  care,  pounded,  and  sifted. 
One-third  part  was  laid  up  in  a  place  on  the  mountain  for 
the  sprinkling  the  people,  one-third  delivered  to  the  twenty- 
four  courses  of  priests  for  their  purifications,  and  the  re- 
mainder kept  in  a  chamber  of  the  temple.  The  lengths  to 
which  the  later  Jews  carried  their  superstitious  observances, 
in  using  these  ashes,  are  too  absurd  to  be  mentioned. 

According  to  Jewish  traditions,  nine  red  heifers  have 
been  sacrificed  :  one  by  Eleazar,  the  son  of  Aaron  ;  one  by 
Ezra ;  seven  others  between  the  captivity  and  the  destruc- 
tion of  the  temple  by  the  Romans  ;  and  they  expect  that  a 
tenth  will  be  burned  in  the  days  of  their  Messiah.  That 
seven  should  have  been  required  during  the  last  five  hun- 
dred years,  and  only  two  during  the  preceding  period  of 
one  thousand,  shows  how  the  ceremonial  observances  were 
multiplied.  The  sacrifice  of  this  heifer  was  typical  of  the 
death  of  Christ ;  but  learned  men  point  out  several  circum- 
stances, by  which  this  sacrifice  and  its  ceremonials  poured 
contempt  on  some  heathen  usages,  especially  by  the  sacri- 
fice of  an  animal  held  sacred  by  the  Egyptians.  And  by 
confining  the  use  of  consecrated  water  to  one  case,  that  of 
defilement  by  a  dead  body,  the  use  of  similar  lustrations 
by  consecrated  water  on  other  occasions  was  checked.  In 
the  other  cases  of  general  occurrence,  the  water  used  for 


228 


JEWISH  NATION. 


purification  was  selected  without  any  ceremonial  observances ; 
but  still  they  expressed  a  due  honor  to  the  presence  of  Je- 
hovah, constantly  representing  how  needful  it  was  for  those 
honored  by  a  near  approach  to  the  Divine  Presence,  to  keep 
themselves  pure,  and  cleansed  from  all  filthiness  of  flesh 
and  spirit,  that  they  might  honorably  serve  a  God  so  holy 
and  so  pure. 

In  other  regulations  the  customs  of  the  heathens  are 
directly  opposed,  and  sometimes  expressly  forbidden,  as  by 
the  injunction  not  to  seethe  a  kid  in  its  mother's  milk, 
(Exod.  xxiii,  19,)  which  was  practiced  among  the  heathen 
as  a  magical  rite.  They  sprinkled  the  milk  in  their  fields 
and  gardens,  believing  it  would  insure  fruitfulness  in  the 
following  year.  Also  in  the  distinctions  about  clean  and 
unclean  meats,  (Lev.  xi,)  and  by  directing  sacrifices  of  ani- 
mals which  were  accounted  sacred  by  the  heathen. 


THE  LEPER  PRONOUNCED  CLEAN. 


One  more  ceremonial  must  be  noticed.  The  rites  for 
cleansing  a  leper  are  stated  Lev.  xiv,  in  very  clear  and  ex- 
press terms.  It  is  to  be  observed,  that  the  cleansing  of  the 
leper  was  not  in  any  manner  supposed  to  be  caused  by  the 
observance  of  any  rites  of  the  law,  or  by  any  proceedings 


RITES  AND   WORSHIP.  229 

of  the  priests.  All  they  had  to  do  was  to  examine  the 
leper,  and  pronounce  when  he  was  cleansed.  The  priest 
was  to  examine  the  leper  some  days  before  he  was  allowed 
to  enter  the  court  of  the  tabernacle,  to  offer  the  sacrifices 
commanded  by  the  law  for  his  cleansing.  The  same  course 
was  pursued  in  the  temple,  where  a  place  was  set  apart 
for  the  leper  till  the  time  for  the  offering  of  his  sacrifice 
arrived.  Although  pronounced  clean  by  the  priest  wliere 
he  dwelt,  and  inspected  on  his  arrival  at  the  temple,  yet  it 
is  to  be  observed,  that  he  was  not  allowed  to  enter  the 
court  of  Israel  till  his  sacrifices  had  been  offered.  He  stood 
in  the  gate  Nicanor,  stretching  forwards  toAvards  the  inner 
court,  but  might  not  proceed  farther  till  his  sacrifices  were 
slain,  and  the  priest  had  put  some  of  the  blood  of  the  vic- 
tim upon  his  left  ear.  How  lively  this  representation  of 
tlie  efficacy  of  the  atoning  blood  of  Christ ! 

Lowman  and  Graves  have  clearly  shown  that  the  Jew- 
ish ritual,  as  a  system,  was  not  so  burdensome  as  many 
suppose.  It  is  true  that  there  were  many  ceremonial  ob- 
servances, but  these  in  their  simple  and  original  form  were 
all  calculated  to  promote  the  temporal  interests  and  welfare 
of  the  nation ;  therefore  the  adversary  tempted  them  be- 
fore the  captivity  to  break  these,  and  to  refuse  compliance 
with  the  divine  pi'ecepts ;  and  after  the  captivity,  to  render 
the  kind  restrictions  a  heavy  yoke,  by  adding  their  own 
traditions.  The  sacrifices,  when  offered  by  individuals  as 
sin-offerings,  were  light  compared  Avith  the  penalties  which 
might  have  been  enforced.  And  as  a  national  ritual,  though 
at  times  complicated,  and  to  our  ideas  unpleasing,  the  sacri- 
fices could  not  be  regarded  as  expensive.  The  stated  offer- 
ings at  the  temple  during  the  year  have  been  estimated  as 
follows: — 115  bullocks,  38  rams,  31  kids,  1103  lambs,  600 
bushels  of  fi|ie  flour,  500  gallons  of  oil,  and  400  gallons  of 
wine.  The  whole  yearly  expense  of  this  national  ritual 
service,  Lowman  observes,  would  not  cost  five  hundred 
dollars  for  each  of  the  twelve  tribes.  Still  the  personal  at- 
tendance, the  occasional  sacrifices  and  lustrations,  rendered 
it  burdensome  to  individuals,  when  compared  with  the 
Christian  dispensation:  see  Acts  xv,  10. 


230 


JEWISH   NATION. 


The  following  Tabular  View  of  the  Ceremonial  Law  will  be  found  useful. 
It  arranges  the  various  precepts  under  their  respective  heads,  so  as  both  to 
show  the  details,  and  to  what  those  details  may  be  referred.  Most  of  these 
precepts  have  already  been  noticed ;  others  need  only  to  be  thus  enu- 
merated. 


1 


Thk  Cjkkbmonial  Law. 

Exodus. 
chap. 

Leviticus, 
chap. 

Numbere. 
chap. 

Denteron. 
chap. 

f  >f  thp  holv  nlace 

20. 
25,  26. 
27.  35. 

30. 

27. 

30. 

25. 
25,  26. 

28. 

27. 
30. 

29,  30. 

29,  30. 
29. 

33,  34. 

12,  13.  23. 

34. 

23,  34. 

23.  34. 

- 

17. 

1: 

19. 10. 

22. 

6. 

6,7. 

3.7. 

4. 

5.7. 
6. 

6,7. 

2,  6,  7. 

24. 

24. 

6.8. 

23. 

23. 

23. 
23. 

23. 

18.  3.  8. 
3.  18. 

-J 

6. 

5. 

15. 

8^ 

8. 
35. 

^. 

28. 

10. 

28. 

9.28. 

28. 
29. 

29. 

12. 

Of  the  tabernacle ] 

The  laver  of  brass           

The  altar  of  burnt-offering      

The  altar  of  incense                    .... 

The  candlestick  of  pure  gold 

- 

The  priests  and  their  vestments. . . 

The  choosing  of  the  Levites 

The  priest's  office  in  general 

Their  office  in  teaching 

18.  12.  17. 
31. 

Of  the  sacrifices  according  to  their 
several  kinds ;  namely — 
What  the  sacrifice  ought  to  be 

15.  17. 

Of  the  peace-offerings 

For  sin  committed  through  igno- 
rance of  the  law 

For  sin  committed  through  igno- 
rance of  the  fact 

For  sin   committed  wittingly,   yet 
not  through  impiety 

The  special  law  of  sacrifices  for  sin 
Of  things  belonging  to  the   sacri- 
fices                        ... 

- 

Of  the  use  of  ordinary  oblations  :— 
Of   the   consecration  of   the  high 
priests  and  other  priests. . 

Of  the  consecrations  and  office  of 
the  Levites    

Of  the  dwellings  of  the  Levites 

Of  the  anointing  the  altar,  and  all 
the  instruments  of  the  tabernacle 

Of  the  continual  daily  sacrifices  . . . 

Of  the  continualSabbath-days'  sacri- 
fice   

- 

Of  the  solemn   sacrifice  for  feast- 
days;  namely — 

Of   new  moons,   or  beginning  of 

Of  the  three  most  solemn  feasts  in 

16. 

Of  the  feast  of  passover | 

Of  the  feast  of  pentecost 

16. 
16 

Of  the  feast  of  tabernacles 

Of  the  feast  of  blowing  the  trum- 
pets   

16. 

RITES  AND  WORSHIP. 


231 


Thb  Ckbkmonial  Law. 


Of  the  feast  of  expiation 

Of  the  first-fruits 

Of  tithes 

Of  fruits  growing  and  not  eaten  of. 

Of  the  first-born 

Of  the  Sabbatical  year 

Of  the  year  of  jubilee 

Of  vows  in  general 

What  persons  ought  not  to  make 

vows 

What  things  cannot  be  vowed  . 

Of  redemption  of  vows 

Of  the  vows  of  the  Nazarites . . . 

Of  the   laws   especially  regarding 
the  priests  ;  namely — 

Of  pollutions 

Of  the  high  priest's  mourning  . . 

Of  his  marriage 

Of  the   mourning  of  the   ordinary 

priests 

Of  their  marriage 

Of  their    being  forbid  the  use   of 

wine,  &c 


Of  sanctified  meats 

Of  the  office  of  the  Levites  ;  name- 
ly— 

Teaching 

Offering 

Other  ceremonial  laws ;  namely — 
Of  uncleanness  in  general  

Of  uncleanness  in  meats  ;  namely — 

Of  blood Gen.  ix. 

Of  fat 

Of  dead  carcasses 

Other  meats,  and  divers  living  crea- 
tures   

Of  uncleanness  in  the  issue  of  seed 

and  blood 

In  the  dead  bodies  of  men 

In  the  leprosy 

Of  circumcision Gen  xvii. 

Of  the  water  of  expiation 

Of  the  mourning  of  the  Israelites. . 

Of  mixtures 

Of  their  garments  and  writing  the 

law  privately 

Of  young  birds  not  to  be  taken  with 

the  dam 

Of  their  paddle  staves  


Exodus, 
chap. 


22.  34. 
23. 


Leviticus, 
chap. 


2. 
21. 
19. 

25. 

25. 
27. 


22. 
21. 
21. 

21. 
21. 


10. 
17.  19. 


7.  17.  19. 
3.7. 
17. 

11.  20. 

15.  12. 

13.  14. 
12.    - 


19. 


Numbers, 
chap. 


ao. 


5.8. 


4.  18. 
5. 


Deuterou. 
chap. 


12.  14.  26. 
15. 

13. 

23. 


12.  15.  n 


17. 


14. 
22. 


232 


JEWISH  NATION. 


A  JEWISH  PRIEST  AX  PRAYER,  WEARING  THE   PHYLACTERY   FOR  THE  HEAD, 
AND  THE  VEIL. 


CHAPTER  XIIL 

THE  WORSHIP  OF  PRAYER  AND  PRAISE. 

The  second  part  of  the  subject  under  consideration  may  be 
called,  by  way  of  distinction,  The  spiritual  worship  of  the 
Jews.  There  is  quite  enough,  both  in  Deuteronomy  and 
Joshua,  to  prove  that  Moses  and  his  successor  taught  the 
Israelites  that  they  were  to  draw  near  to  God  in  acts  of 
mental  worship.  And  the  same  principles  are  taught  in 
every  part  of  Scripture.  The  necessity  for  prayer  at  once 
appears,  when  we  consider  the  dependent  condition  of  all 
creatures,  who  can  only  be  supported  and  supplied  by  that 
bounty  and  hberality  which  at  first  created  all  things.  The 
house  of  the  Lord  (see  Isa.  Ivi,  V)  is  especially  to  be  deno- 
minated the  house  of  prayer.  Nor  should  the  remark  of 
Henry  be  forgotten,  that,  as  in  the  institutions,  so  in  the 
devotions  of  the  Old  Testament,  there  is  more  of  Christ 
than  perhaps  the  Old  Testament  saints  were  aware  of. 


RITES  AND   WORSHIP.  238 

There  is  no  reason  to  doubt  that  Adam  and  Eve  were 
made  partakers  of  the  grace  set  forth  in  the  promises  of 
redemption,  and  that  they  instructed  their  children  in  the 
same  truths.  This  appears  from  Abel's  conduct,  and  the 
early  distinction  (Gen.  iv,  26)  between  those  who  received 
these  doctrines,  and  professed  themselves  followers  of  God, 
and  others  who  must  have  rejected  the  truth ;  or  a  differ- 
ence would  not  have  been  noticed.  When  God  is  looked 
up  to  as  a  Creator  and  Benefactor,  and  much  more  where 
he  is  believed  in  as  a  Saviour  and  Redeemer,  the  heart  will 
be  lifted  up  in  prayer  and  praise.  As  in  the  case  of  Enoch 
and  of  Noah,  the  renewed  heart  will  walk  with  God ;  and 
how  can  this  intercourse  be  maintained  unless  by  prayer  ? 
They  came  to  God,  believing  that  he  is  a  re  warder  of  those 
that  diligently  seek  him,  Heb.  xi,  6. 

The  early  history  of  the  patriarchs  after  the  flood  shows 
that  they  attended  to  prayer,  both  for  themselves  and  for 
others.  Abraham  prayed  for  Sodom.  Lot  prayed  for  him- 
self and  his  family,  Gen.  xviii,  xix.  Abimelech  was  told 
that  Abraham  would  pray  for  him,  (Gen.  xx,  7,)  and  he  did 
so  plead.  Eliezer,  Abraham's  steward,  probably  prayed  at 
the  well,  Gen.  xxiv,  12.  Rebekah's  mother  and  brother 
prayed  for  her,  ver.  60.  Isaac's  prayer  in  the  field  appears 
to  have  been  his  regular  evening  practice,  (ver.  63,)  and  he 
prayed  for  his  sons.  Gen.  xxvii,  28,  29,  39,  40.  Jacob 
wrestled  all  night  with  God  in  prayer,  (Gen.  xxxii,  24,  26,) 
but  it  is  unnecessary  to  multiply  instances.  These  all  con- 
fessed that  they  were  strangers  and  pilgrims  on  the  earth ; 
they  called  God  their  God,  and  desired  a  heavenly  inherit- 
ance. How  can  faith  exist  without  prayer  ?  And  praise 
necessarily  accompanies  prayer ;  it  is  part  of  it. 

The  names  by  which  the  patriarchs  called  various  places, 
frequently  were  acts  of  prayer  or  praise.  Thus,  when  pre- 
vented from  offering  up  Isaac,  Abraham  called  the  place 
Jehovah-Jireh,  which  means,  "  the  Lord  will  provide,"  Gen. 
xxii,  14.  When  the  herdmanof  Gerar  ceased  to  strive  with 
the  herdman  of  Isaac,  he  called  the  name  of  the  well  Reho- 
both,  or  "  room,"  adding  an  acknowledgment  of  God's 
goodness.  Gen.  xxvi,  22.  Jacob  called  the  place  where  he 
prayed,  Peniel,  (Gen.  xxxii,  30,)  "the  face  of  God,"  express- 
ing thankfulness  that  he  had  been  permitted  to  see  God,  and 
yet  was  preserved.     The  blessings  the  patriarchs  uttered 


234  JEWISH    NATION. 

respecting  their  descendants  were  both  prayers  and  praises  ; 
see  particularly  the  words  of  dying  Jacob,  Gen.  xhx.  Leah 
not  only  praised  the  Lord  for  his  providential  mercy  to  her, 
but  expressly  named  one  of  her  children  Judah ;  that  is, 
*'  praise,"  Gen.  xxix,  35.  The  Book  of  Job,  also,  is  full  of 
passages  which  indicate  a  mental  and  spiritual  communion 
with  his  God.  It  may  further  be  observed,  that  most  of  the 
places  where  the  patriarchs  erected  altars  for  sacrifice  had 
previously  been  marked  by  their  spiritual  intercourse  with 
God.  Thus,  at  Bethel,  or  the  house  of  God,  where  Jacob 
set  up  a  pillar,  or  pile  of  stones,  to  keep  in  remembrance  his 
remarkable  vision,  was  afterwards  built  an  altar  by  Divine 
command.  Gen.  xxxv,  7. 

Prayer  and  praise,  or  spiritual  worship,  were  continually 
offered  under  the  second  dispensation,  without  sacrifice,  as 
well  as  when  accompanied  by  offerings.  The  solemn  in- 
junction, "  Hear,  0  Israel !  The  Lord  our  God  is  one  Lord  ; 
and  thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy  God  with  all  thine  heart, 
and  with  all  thy  soul,  and  with  all  thy  might ;"  see  Deut. 
vi,  4,  5,  plainly  shows  a  spiritual  religion  of  the  heart,  not 
mere  outward  ceremonies,  like  heathen  sacrifices.  In  Num. 
vi,  23-26;  x,  35,  36;  Deut.  xxvi,  3,  5-11,  13-15,  are 
short  devotional  formularies  of  prayer  for  stated  occasions. 
In  the  ceremonies  appointed  for  the  expiation  of  a  murder 
when  the  perpetrator  was  unknown,  a  prayer  was  appointed, 
which  is  recorded  Deut.  xxi,  7,  8.  In  accordance  with  this 
principle,  the  prophet  Samuel  expressly  declares  that  "  to 
obey  is  better  than  sacrifice,  and  to  hearken  than  the  fat  of 
rams,"  1  Sam.  xv,  22.  The  occasion  upon  which  these 
words  were  uttered  particularly  claims  notice.  King  Saul 
and  the  people  had  disobeyed  the  Divine  directions,  and 
thought  to  compensate  for  so  doing  by  offering  sacrifices. 
The  prophet  Hosea  (xiv,  1)  calls  upon  Israel  to  return  to 
the  Lord,  and  when  accepted,  to  offer  "the  calves  of  the 
lips ;"  not  the  sacrifices  of  slain  beasts,  but  the  thanksgivings 
of  the  heart.  ^ 

The  expressions  in  the  fiftieth  Psalm  imply  that  God 
would  not  accept  the  typical  sacrifice,  where  thanksgiving 
unto  God,  and  the  calling  upon  him  in  the  day  of  trouble, 
had  been  neglected,  see  ver.  14,  15.  In  ver.  23,  it  is  ex- 
pressly said,  that  offering  praise  is  glorifying  God  ;  see  also 
Prov.  xxi,  3 ;  the  strong  declaration,  Isa.  i,  ll-lV,  and  Jer. 


KITES  AND   WORSHIP.  235 

vii,  21-23  ;  Hos.  vi,  6 ;  Amos  v,  21,  22  ;  Mic.  vi,  6-8,  and 
many  more.  To  these  may  be  added  the  declaration  of  the 
scribes,  confirmed  by  our  Lord  himself,  "  To  love  God  with 
all  the  heart,  and  with  all  the  understanding,  and  with  all 
the  soul,  and  with  all  the  strength,  and  to  love  his  neighbor 
as  himself,  is  more  than  all  whole  burnt- offerings  and  sacri- 
fices," Mark  xii,  33.  The  Book  of  Psalms  may  be  consid- 
ered as  expressions  of  spiritual  worship  in  prayer  and  praise. 
And  we  must  not  forget  the  noble  hymns  of  praise  sung 
by  Miriam,  Moses,  Deborah,  and  Hannah,  in  earlier  times. 

Prayer  and  praise  are  especially  directed  under  the  third, 
or  Christian  dispensation.  JSTote  the  precept,  to  "  Pray  al- 
ways," and  "Pray  without  ceasing;"  the  promise,  "Ask, 
and  ye  shall  receive ;"  the  injunction,  "  In  everything  give 
thanks  ;"  and  the  assurance,  that  "  Whatsoever  we  ask  in  the 
name  of  Christ  it  shall  be  given."  And  "  Speak  to  your- 
selves in  psalms,  and  hymns,  and  spiritual  songs,  singing 
and  making  melody  in  your  heart  to  the  Lord." 

Does  the  reader  ask  why  so  much  is  here  said  upon  a 
matter  so  plain,  and  in  !•  self  so  evident  ?  The  answer  may 
easily  be  given.  Mankind  are  not  inclined  to  act  as  thougli 
these  Divine  precepts  were  self-evident.  Do  we  not  find 
many  acting  hke  Saul  of  old  ?  How  else  do  those  act  who 
perhaps  scarcely  ever  pray,  or  commune  with  their  God  in 
private,  yet  are  punctual  in  their  attendance  on  outward 
ordinances,  regular  at  their  place  of  worship,  constant  in 
receiving  the  Lord's  supper,  and  perhaps  never  omitting  to 
use  the  formularies  in  their  "  Companion  to  the  Altar !" 
Wherein  do  these  sacrifices  differ  from  the  rejected  oflFering-s 
of  old  ?  They  are  outward,  formal  acknowledgments  of  the 
Saviour,  just  as  were  the  typical  sacrifices ;  but  are  they 
more  than  the  sacrifice  of  fools,  spoken  of  Eccl.  v,  1  ?  The 
words  in  ver.  4,  "  He  hath  no  pleasure  in  fools,"  should 
startle  many ;  for  what  are  prayers  but  vows  solemnly  ex- 
pressed, therefore  to  be  performed  as  solemnly. 

The  Pharisees  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour  wore  the  phy- 
lacteries and  fringes  while  at  prayer.  The  former  are  strips 
of  parchment,  on  which  are  written  passages  from  the  law ; 
these  were  worn  on  the  left  arm.  The  fringes  were  ordered, 
(Num.  XV,  28,)  that  they  might  be  reminded  of  the  com- 
mandments. These  were  and  are  merely  formal  observances, 
and  as  such  were  expressly  condemned  by  our  Lord. 


236  JEWISH  NATION. 


CHAPTER  XIY. 

PLACES  FOR  SPIRITUAL  WORSHIP — PROSEUCHAS — SYNA- 
GOGUES, AND  THE  SYNAGOGUE  SERVICE. 

The  places  used  for  prayer  and  praise  are  often  mentioned. 
Isaac  meditated  and  prayed  in  the  field,  and  Abraham 
planted  a  grove  in  Beer-sheba,  (Gen,  xxi,  33,)  and  there 
called  on  tlie  name  of  the  Lord,  the  everlasting  God.  In 
early  days  buildings  were  not  erected  for  this  purpose,  and 
kept  separate  for  this  use  only.  The  social  worship  was 
family  worship ;  and  on  the  most  solemn  occasions,  doubt- 
less, was  at  the  place  of  sacrifice :  perhaps  other  persons 
might  attend  from  various  motives. 

The  earliest  mention  of  any  separate  building,  apparently 
used  expressly  for  religious  worship,  is  of  the  first  taber- 
nacle, mentioned  Exod.  xxxiii,  7.  The  use  of  this,  indeed, 
is  uncertain ;  and  the  most  probable  opinion  is,  that  it  was 
a  temporary  building  erected  for  the  use  of  Moses,  in  trans- 
acting the  daily  affairs  of  the  congregation.  Soon  after, 
a  tabernacle  expressly  for  religious  typical  worship  was 
erected ;  this  was  carried  by  the  Israelites  in  their  joumey- 
ings  to  the  promised  land,  and  set  up  wherever  they  rested. 

But  as  individuals  continued  to  offer  sacrifices  in  other 
places,  even  after  the  tabernacle  had  been  erected,  and  the 
ceremonial  rites  instituted,  we  may  conclude  that  they  re- 
sorted to  those  places  also  for  prayer  and  praise.  The  his- 
tory of  Micah  shows  that  he  had  a  house,  or  apartment, 
especially  devoted  to  the  images,  the  worship  of  which  he 
mixed  with  the  worship  of  Jehovah ;  and  those  who  con- 
tinued faithful  to  the  true  religion,  would  have  places  where 
they  assembled  for  Divine  service. 

Prideaux  considers  that  from  an  early  period  there  were 
places  for  the  people  to  offer  up  prayers  to  God,  which 
were  called  by  a  name  signifying  the  assemblies  of  G  od,  but 
in  after  times  proseuchas.  These  were  open  inclosures,  built 
in  private  and  retired  spots,  frequently  in  high  places,  and 
on  mountains,  without  any  covering,  except  perhaps  the 
shade  of  trees.  Those  high  places  which  are  not  condemned 
in  Scripture  probably  were  proseuchas.     Samuel  resorted 


RITES    AND    WORSHIP.  237 

to  such  a  place,  1  Sam.  ix,  19  :  another  is  mentioned  in  the 
following  chapter,  and  others  elsewhere.  Prideaux  thinks 
that  the  sanctuary  of  the  Lord  in  Shechem,  by  which 
Joshua  set  up  a  pillar  under  an  oak,  (Josh,  xxiv,  26,)  was 
one  of  these  proseuchas ;  it  is  e^adent  there  were  trees  near 
it.  Epiphanius  describes  such  a  place  near  Shechem,  in 
the  fourth  century.  Several  passages  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment mention  proseuchas  as  resorted  to  among  the  Jews  in 
later  times.  The  passage  Luke  vi,  12,  when  literally 
translated,  is,  "  In  those  days  Jesus  retired  to  a  mountain 
to  pray,  and  he  passed  all  the  night  in  a  proseucha  of  God." 
We  cannot  suppose  our  Lord  would  have  resorted  with  this 
intent  to  a  building  forbidden  by  the  law,  or  used  for  idola- 
trous worship ;  nor  did  any  such  places  exist  at  that  time  in 
Judea.  St.  Paul  found  a  proseucha  at  Philippi,  to  which 
Lydia  resorted.  Acts  xvi,  13.  He  taught  there,  and  her 
conversion  encourages  regular  attendance  on  public  wor- 
ship. The  Jewish  proseuchas  are  noticed  by  Juvenal,  who 
was  a  heathen  Roman  poet.  Other  writers  mention  the 
existence  of  proseuchas  in  different  countries.  Philo  com- 
plains that  the  people  of  Alexandria,  in  Egypt,  cut  down 
the  trees  by  which  the  proseuchas  in  that  city  were  shaded. 
A  proseucha  at  Mispah  is  mentioned  by  the  author  of  the 
first  book  of  the  Maccabees,  (iii,  46.) 

The  Jews  resorted  to  the  cities  of  the  Levites,  and  the 
schools  of  the  prophets,  to  be  instructed  in  religious  mat- 
ters ;  and  from  the  observation  of  the  husband  of  the  Shu- 
nammite,  (2  Kings  iv,  23,)  it  appears  that  these  assemblies 
were  usual  on  the  new  moons  and  Sabbaths.  But  there  is 
no  clear  statement  of  regular  public  services  till  after  the 
Babylonish  captivity.  Prideaux  thinks  this  may  have  been 
one  of  the  causes  why  the  people  were  so  easily  led  into 
idolatry,  when  the  kings  and  rulers  were  men  who  did  not 
take  active  measures  to  keep  up  true  religion  throughout 
the  country.  Such  times  appear  to  be  pointed  out  by  the 
expression,  "  They  did  that  which  was  right  in  their  own 
eyes."  It  is  plain  from  Scripture,  that  during  the  times 
of  the  judges,  and  also  under  many  of  the  kings,  public 
matters  of  a  religious,  as  well  as  of  a  civil  nature,  were  in 
many  respects  subject  to  changes,  and  often  in  confusion. 
The  synagogues  were  buildings  expressly  for  worship.  It 
is  now  generally  agreed  that  there  are  no  sufficient  grounds 


238  JEWISH  NATION. 

for  believing  that  these  existed  before  the  Babylonish  cap- 
tivity. It  is  thought  that  Psalm  Ixxiv  was  either  written 
after  that  period,  and  that  verse  8  refers  to  the  destruction 
of  the  synagogues  by  Antiochus ;  or  that  the  expression, 
which  in  the  original  is,  "all  the  assembhes  of  God,"  de- 
scribes the  proseuchas  already  mentioned. 

During  the  captivity,  the  Jews  appear  to  have  resorted 
to  the  houses  of  the  prophets,  or  other  holy  men^  who  were 
accustomed  to  instruct  their  families,  and  to  read  the  Scrip- 
tures, especially  the  law :  see  Ezek.  xiv,  1 ;  xx,  1 ;  Neh. 
viii,  18.  Though  it  is  impossible  to  trace  the  origin  of 
synagogues,  we  may  conclude  that  the  advantages  found  to 
result  from  such  assemblies  induced  their  general  adoption. 
Probably  they  might  be  used  by  the  Jews  in  foreign  coun- 
tries, before  they  became  general  in  Judea.  Philo,  a  Jew- 
ish native  of  Alexandria,  contends  for  their  antiquity.  The 
practice  of  Ezra  to  read  the  lavr^  publicly,  with  explanations, 
(Neh.  viii,  1-8  ;  xiii,  1-3,)  may  also  have  had  something  to 
do  with  these  assemblies  becoming  general ;  and  they  were 
very  numerous  in  the  time  of  the  Asmonean  princes.  The 
best  way  to  reconcile  the  different  opinions  on  the  subject 
appears  to  be,  to  suppose  that  the  people  from  their  first 
settlement  in  Canaan  used  to  meet  in  the  open  air,  in  high 
places  and  proseuchas ;  also  in  houses,  particularly  at  the 
houses  of  the  prophets  ;  but  that,  after  the  captivity,  when 
these  meetings  became  more  general  and  regular,  houses 
were  built  expressly  for  the  purpose  of  worship ;  and,  be- 
fore the  time  when  our  Saviour  was  upon  earth,  the  syna- 
gogue worship  had  become  regularly  established.  The  as- 
sembling together  in  the  open  air,  (Neh.  viii,  1,  and  Ezra 
x,  9,)  would  soon  be  found  inconvenient. 

The  rules  respecting  synagogues  were,  that  one  should 
be  built  wherever  at  least  ten  persons,  of  full  age  and  free 
condition,  could  be  got  together  to  form  a  congregation ; 
for  unless  that  number  of  persons  were  present,  the  service 
could  not  be  performed.  It  was  therefore  usual  to  appoint 
ten  men  to  attend  whenever  the  service  was  performed ;  in 
some  cases  they  seem  to  have  had  regular  salaries  for  so 
doing.  In  our  Saviour's  time,  the  synagogues  had  so  in- 
creased, that  there  was  no  town  without  one  or  more  of 
these  buildings.  In  Tiberias,  the  Jewish  writers  say,  there 
were  twelve  synagogues,  and  in  Jerusalem  no  less  than  four 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  239 

hundred  and  eighty.  Even  if  this  number  is  an  exaggera- 
tion, it  shows  that  the  synagogue  worship  was  general,  and 
that  the  temple  worship  did  not  render  it  unnecessary.  It 
is  an  additional  proof  that  the  national  typical  services  were 
not  intended  to  prevent  spiritual  and  personal  worship, 
though  even  these  had  often  been  allowed  to  degenerate 
into  formality. 

The  synagogues  were  not  required  to  be  of  any  particular 
form,  although  they  were  similar  in  their  internal  arrange- 
ments ;  the  western  end  being  for  the  ministers  and  elders, 
the  eastern  for  the  body  of  the  congregation.  There  was 
a  table  on  which  the  roll,  or  book  of  the  law,  was  spread, 
and  on  the  east  side  a  chest  or  ark,  covered  with  a  rich  veil, 
in  which  the  roll  was  kept.  Also  there  was  a  pulpit,  or 
reading-pew,  large  enough  to  hold  several  persons.  The 
seats  were  so  arranged  that  the  people  looked  towards  the 
book  of  the  law  and  the  elders.  The  elders  sat  with  their 
backs  to  the  ark  and  their  faces  towards  the  people.  These 
were  the  chief  seats  the  Pharisees  were  so  eager  to  occupy, 
see  Matt,  xxiii,  6  ;  and  a  similar  desire  among  the  Christian 
Hebrews  seems  to  be  condemned,  James  ii,  3.  The  women 
sat  in  a  gallery  inclosed  with  lattice-work,  so  that  they  could 
see  without  being  seen.  To  build  a  synagogue  appears  to 
have  been  deemed  an  act  of  piety,  as  the  erecting  of  a 
church  or  chapel  is  considered  at  the  present  day,  Luke 
vii,  5.  The  modern  Jewish  synagogues  resemble  the  an- 
cient ones  as  to  many  points  of  their  interior  arrangements. 

The  officers  of  the  synagogue  were :  1 .  The  rulers,  Luke 
viii,'41,  49.  These  had  the  chief  care  and  direction  of  the 
matters  concerning  the  synagogue  and  its  services,  and 
formed  a  sort  of  council  or  tribunal  of  judgment.  They 
were  more  than  one ;  thus  at  Corinth  both  Crispus  and 
Sosthenes  are  mentioned  as  rulers  of  the  synagogue.  The 
number  usually  was  three.  2.  The  second  officer  was  called 
the  angel  of  the  Church ;  he  was  the  minister  of  the  syna- 
gogue, and  labored  among  them  in  word  or  doctrine.  He 
also  appointed  the  readers,  and  stood  by  them  to  see  that 
they  read  aright.  Hence  he  was  also  called  hezen,  or 
overseer.  The  title  "  angels,"  given  to  the  ministers  of  the 
seven  churches,  (Rev.  i,  20,)  appears  to  have  reference  to 
this  officer.  3.  The  deacons,  almoners,  or  pastors  of  the 
poor,  were  usually  three  in  number.     They  collected  alms 


240  JEWISH   NATION. 

from  house  to  house ;  there  was  also  a  poor's  box  in  the 
synagogue.  From  these  funds  the  poor  Jews  were  reheved 
on  the  Sabbath  eve.  The  deacons  had  the  care  of  the 
utensils  of  the  synagogue.  4.  The  interpreter,  who  stood 
beside  the  reader,  to  translate  the  portion  of  Scripture  from 
the  Hebrew  mto  the  language  then  used :  as  for  instance, 
in  Judea,  into  the  Chaldee  dialect.  Among  the  Greek 
Jews  the  law  was  read  in  the  Greek  version  of  the  Old 
Testament,  called  the  Septuagint.  To  these  officers  are  to 
be  added  the  doctor,  or  lecturer  of  the  divinity  school,  and 
his  interpreter. 

In  the  methods  for  the  synagogue  services,  as  Lowman 
remarks,  the  Jews  appear  to  have  been  left  to  the  ancient 
customs  of  the  Abrahamic  worship ;  for  the  Mosaic  ritual 
contained  no  directions  for  these  services.  They  differed 
but  little  from  the  present  worship  of  Christian  assemblies, 
and  thus  connect  the  three  dispensations. 

The  routine  of  the  pubhc  service  was  as  follows : — The 
angel,  'or  minister,  ascended  the  raised  platform  or  pulpit, 
the  people  all  standing  in  a  posture  of  devotion.  Their 
liturgies  or  prescribed  forms  at  first  were  few,  but  after- 
wards increased  to  a  great  number,  when  the  service  be- 
came long  and  tedious,  and  the  directions  respecting  it 
intricate  and  perplexed.  The  most  solemn  part  of  the 
synagogue  prayers  are  the  Shema,  or  Shemoneh  Esreh, 
eighteen  prayers  which  the  Jews  say  were  composed  and 
appointed  by  Ezra.  They  certainly  are  very  ancient;  a 
considerable  part  of  them  were  probably  in  use  in  the  time 
of  our  Saviour.  The  first  will  suffice  as  a  specimen : 
"  Blessed  be  thou,  O  Lord  our  God,  the  God  of  our  fathers, 
the  God  of  Abraham,  the  God  of  Isaac,  the  God  of  Jacob, 
the  Great  God,  powerful  and  tremendous,  the  High  God, 
bountifully  dispensing  benefits,  the  Creator  and  Possessor 
of  the  universe,  who  rememberest  the  good  deeds  of  our 
fathers,  and  in  thy  love  sendest  a  Redeemer  to  those  who 
are  descended  from  them,  for  thy  name's  sake,  0  King,  our 
Helper,  our  Saviour,  and  our  Shield.  Blessed  art  thou,  O 
Lord,  who  art  the  Shield  of  Abraham." 

These  prayers,  or  a  part  of  them,  were  to  be  said  by  all 
Jews  every  day.  Many  other  prayers  were  added  to  these  ; 
and  our  Lord  in  his  time  found  fault  with  the  long  public 
devotions  of  the  Pharisees,  as  being  made  merely  for  a  pre- 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  241 

tense,  Matt,  xxiii,  14 ;  Luke  xx,  47.  A  prayer  is  offered 
by  the  modern  Jews  for  the  rebuilding  of  the  temple ;  also 
a  curse  or  execration  on  the  Christians.  The  people  re- 
sponded at  the  close  of  each  prayer,  saying,  "  Amen,"  or 
*,'So  be  it."  Among  the  idle  superstitions  of  the  later 
Jews,  may  be  included  their  opinion  of  the  efficacy  attached 
to  this  word,  some  beheving  that  the  gates  of  paradise  will 
be  open  to  any  one  who  says  Amen,  with  all  his  might ! 
They  covered  their  heads  while  they  prayed,  thereby  pro- 
fessing reverence,  and  that  they  were  unworthy  to  appear 
before  God. 

The  second  part  of  the  synagogue  service  was  the  read- 
ing the  Scriptures.  This  comprised  :  1 .  Three  portions  of 
Scripture,  called  the  Kerioth  Shema,  from  the  word  with 
which  the  first  begins.  They  are,  Deut.  vi,  6-9  ;  xi,  13-21 ; 
Num.  XV,  37-41,  and  form  a  solemn  part  of  the  Jewish 
service.  2.  A  portion  of  the  law,  or  the  five  Books  of 
Moses.  These  are  divided  into  fifty-four  paraschoith,  or  sec- 
tions, one  being  allotted  to  every  Sabbath,  thus  supplying 
enough  for  their  longest  or  intercalary  year;  and  in  other 
years  some  of  the  shortest  sections  were  put  together.  Tliis 
annual  course  of  reading  began  at  the  feast  of  tabernacles. 
3.  Selections  from  the  prophetical  writings,  called  haphto- 
roth.  Antiochus  Epiphanes  having  prohibited  the  pubhc 
reading  of  the  law,  passages  from  the  prophets  were  substi- 
tuted, and  were  retained  when  the  prohibition  as  to  the  law 
was  removed.  The  haphtoroth  are  portions  from  the  his- 
torical and  prophetical  books  intermixed ;  there  are  some 
variations  as  to  these  among  the  Jews  of  different  nations ; 
but  the  portions  of  the  law,  and  many  of  those  of  the  pro- 
phets also,  remain  now  the  same  as  they  were  in  the  days 
of  our  Saviour.  Henderson  found  that  the  prophecy,  Joel 
ii,  28-32,  forms  part  of  the  service  for  the  day  of  Pentecost 
among  the  Kairite  Jews  who  live  in  the  Crimea.  The 
apostle  Peter  quoted  those  verses  in  his  discourse  to  the 
Jews  on  the  day  of  Pentecost,  Acts  ii,  16-21.  It  is  very 
probable,  that  in  the  days  of  the  apostles  this  passage 
formed  a  part  of  the  haphtoroth  of  the  day,  which  would 
render  the  quotation  particularly  forcible  and  appropriate. 
The  other  modem  Jews  stop  at  ver.  27,  thus  omitting  a 
very  important  part,  a  circumstance  not  easily  to  be  ac- 
counted for,  excepting  by  the  fact  of  its  having  been  thus 
11 


242  JEWISH   NATION. 

(juoted,  to  the  conviction  of  many  of  the  Jews  in  the  days 
of  the  apostle. 

The  number  of  readers  in  the  synagogue  varied  from 
three  to  seven,  but  there  might  not  be  fewer  than  three 
readers  of  the  law.  On  the  Sabbath,  seven  was  the  usual 
number.  If  priests  and  Levites  were  present,  one  of  each 
read  a  portion,  the  other  five  were  private  Israelites.  They 
were  selected  by  the  minister,  who  chose  whom  he  pleased. 
The  person  called  upon  then  went  into  the  desk  or  pulpit 
with  the  minister,  and  the  roll  being  opened,  the  reader 
waited  till  the  ruler  of  the  synagogue  told  him  to  com- 
mence. He  began  with  a  short  prayer,  blessing  God  that 
he  had  chosen  them  to  be  his  people,  and  had  given  to  them 
his  law.  The  minister,  as  already  stated,  stood  by  the 
readers ;  if  any  word  was  omitted,  or  pronounced  wrong,  he 
made  them  correct  the  error :  this  point  was  strictly  ob- 
served. The  plan  appears  well  calculated  to  interest  the 
people  at  large  in  the  public  services,  and  would  assist  the 
minister  in  discharging  the  duties  of  his  office. 

The  last  part  of  the  synagogue  service  was  expounding 
the  Scriptures,  and  preaching  from  them.  In  Luke  iv  is  an 
account  how  the  first  of  these  was  conducted  in  the  syna- 
gogue service  in  the  time  of  Christ.  Let  the  reader  refer 
to  that  chapter,  and  read  ver.  15-22.  This  took  place  at 
Nazareth,  Christ's  own  city,  where  he  would  be  a  member 
of  the  synagogue.  He  was  called  out  to  read  the  section 
of  the  prophets  appointed  for  that  day,  which  appears  to 
have  been  the  51st  haphtoroth.  This  now  begins  at  ver.  10, 
but  our  Lord  read  from  the  first  verse.  A.  Clarke  well 
asks,  "  Have  the  Jews  altered  this  haphtoroth,  knowing  the 
use  our  blessed  Lord  made  of  it  among  their  ancestors  ?" 
He  stood  up  to  read  the  word  of  God,  as  was  customary  for 
the  reader  to  do,  and  unrolling  the  manuscript,  till  he  came 
to  the  lesson  for  the  day,  he  read  it ;  then  rolling  the  book 
again,  he  gave  it  to  the  minister,  and  sat  down  while  ex- 
plaining it,  as  was  usual  among  the  Jews.  Sometimes, 
when  the  reader  expounded,  he  did  not  read  the  whole  of 
the  appointed  portion. 

The  preaching  was  arranged  in  the  following  manner : — 
The  minister  might  call  on  any  person  who  was  present,  to 
speak  or  preach  after  the  regular  services  of  the  day  were 
gone  through  ;  and  from  several  passages  in  the  Gospels  and 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  243 

Acts,  as  well  as  the  testimony  of  the  Jewish  writers,  we 
find  it  was  not  unusual  to  invite  strangers  to  do  this.  Thus, 
Acts  xiii,  15,  16,  after  the  portions  from  the  law  and  the 
prophets  had  been  read,  the  rulers  of  the  synagogue  sent  to 
Paul  and  his  companions,  saying,  "  Men  and  brethren,  if  ye 
have  any  word  of  exhortation  for  the  people,  say  on."  Upon 
which  Paul  stood  up,  and  beckoning  with  his  hand,  said, 
"  Men  of  Israel,  and  ye  that  fear  God,  give  audience,"  etc. 
Other  passages  show  that  it  was  customary  for  the  apostles 
thus  to  preach  in  the  synagogues.  Our  Lord's  history  re- 
cords the  same.  Luke  iv,  16,  shows  that  he  used  to  attend 
the  synagogues  every  Sabbath-day ;  and  it  appears  to  have 
been  his  custom,  even  where  he  was  not  a  member,  for  him 
to  teach  or  preach  after  the  law  and  the  prophets  had  been 
read.  Here  is  a  wide  distinction  between  the  spiritual  sa- 
crifices of  prayer  and  praise,  and  the  typical  of  slain  beasts 
imder  the  ceremonial  law.  For  administering  the  latter,  a 
separate  order  of  men,  all  of  one  tribe,  were  trained  up  from 
their  youth,  and  especially  devoted  to  these  services ;  but  it 
was  not  so  with  the  former.  The  apostle,  speaking  of  the 
spiritual  priesthood  after  the  order  of  Melchisedec,  says, 
"  He  of  whom  these  things  are  spoken  pertainethto  another 
tribe,  of  which  no  man  gave  attendance  at  the  altar.  For 
it  is  evident  that  our  Lord  sprang  out  of  Judah  ;  of  which 
tribe  Moses  spake  nothing  concerning  priesthood,"  Heb. 
vii,  13. 

How  completely  the  Jewish  rabbins,  even  in  prayer,  lost 
sight  of  the  vicarious  offices  of  the  Mediator,  as  represented 
by  the  sacrifices,  and  substituted  what  was  personally  their 
own,  appears  from  the  following  account,  given  by  Schoett- 
gen: — When  Eabbi  Scheschett  once  fasted,  after  he  had 
finished  his  prayers,  he  said,  "  O  Lord  of  the  universe,  it  is 
known  to  thee,  that  if  any  one  who  had  sinned  stood  in  thy 
temple,  he  brought  a  sacrifice  to  thee,  but  of  that  no  part 
was  offered  excepting  the  fat  and  the  blood,  and  these  being 
ofiered  he  was  cleansed  from  his  sin.  Now  I  fast  so  that 
my  fat  and  my  blood  waste  away ;  may  it  then  please  thee 
that  my  fat  and  my  blood,  thus  wasted  away,  may  be  ac- 
counted as  if  I  had  offered  them  upon  thy  altars,  and  grant 
me  thy  grace."  How  the  Jews  rested  in  "the  beggarly 
elements,"  (Gal.  iv.  9,)  appears  from  another  extract.  "  The 
Israelites  said.  While  the  temple  stood,  we  offered  to  thee 


244  JEWISH  NATION. 

fat  and  other  things,  by  which  was  obtained  expiation.  Now 
we  offer  to  thee  our  fat,  our  blood,  and  our  Hves,  may  it 
please  thee  that  they  may  be  an  expiation  for  us  !" 

The  days  for  the  synagogue  services  were  the  2d  of  the 
week,  or  Monday ;  the  5th,  Thursday ;  and  Saturday,  or  the 
Sabbath.  The  first  two  were  called  days  of  assembling, 
and  were  kept  as  fasts  by  the  strict  Jews ;  to  this  the  Pha- 
risee probably  refers,  Luke  xviii,  12.  It  seems  also  to  be 
alluded  to.  Acts  xiii,  42,  where  the  original  words  strictly 
mean,  "  in  the  middle  Sabbath,"  probably  the  next  syna- 
gogue day.  As  the  people  were  anxious  about  what  they 
had  heard,  we  may  suppose  they  did  not  wish  to  defer  hear- 
ing more  on  the  subject  for  a  whole  week. 

The  reason  assigned  for  this  appointment,  by  which  a 
portion  of  the  law  was  publicly  read  every  three  days,  de- 
serves notice,  though  it  is  connected  with  that  mystical  plan 
of  interpretation,  by  which  the  Jews  of  later  times  often 
made  void  both  the  law  and  the  prophets.  In  Exod.  xv,  22, 
it  is  stated  that  the  Israelites  were  in  great  distress,  on  their 
traveling  three  days  together  in  the  wilderness  without 
meeting  with  any  water.  By  their  mystical  rules  of  inter- 
pretation, they  explained  this  water  to  mean  the  law ;  and 
said  that  they  were  thus  taught  that  they  ought  not  to  allow 
three  days  to  pass  without  hearing  a  portion  of  it.  They 
therefore  divided  the  weekly  portion  into  two,  by  reading 
half  on  each  of  the  days  of  assembling,  and  on  the  Sabbath 
they  read  the  whole  in  the  morning,  and  again  in  the  even- 
ing. The  same  plan  was  pursued  with  the  portion  from  the 
prophets.  Surely  Christians  may  learn  a  useful  lesson  from 
this.  The  Holy  Scriptures,  which  holy  men  of  old  wrote 
as  they  were  inspired  by  G-od  the  Spirit,  are  as  water  to  the 
soul ;  and  many  a  weary,  thirsty  soul  finds  them  refreshing, 
as  water  is  to  the  tired  thirsty  bodily  frame. 

On  the  days  of  synagogue  service,  the  people  met  three 
times — at  nine  in  the  morning,  at  noon,  and  at  three  in  the 
afternoon;  hours  corresponding  with  the  temple  services. 
None  might  pass  the  door  of  a  synagogue  during  service, 
unless  they  had  some  object  requiring  them  to  do  so. 

The  synagogues  were  used  for  private  prayer  as  well  as 
the  temple,  individuals  resorting  thither  as  a  place  for  re- 
tirement. Schools  were  sometimes  taught  in  the  syna- 
gogues.    The  teachers  sat  on  raised  seats,  while  the  scho- 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP. 


245 


JEWS  TEACHING  CHILDREN  THE  LAW. 


lars  stood  at  their  feet,  or  before  them.  St.  Paul  says  he 
was  brought  up  at  the  feet  of  Gamahel,  one  of  the  most 
celebrated  teachers  of  that  day,  Acts  xxii,  3.  The  words 
of  the  apostle,  Acts  xxiv,  12,  and  other  passages,  indicate 
that  synagogues  often  were  places  of  discussion,  conference, 
and  debates  connected  with  matters  of  religion,  and  the 
rabbins  and  elders  used  to  meet  for  such  discussions. 

The  rulers  of  the  synagogues  possessed  a  power  of  judg- 
ment. This  they  exercised,  with  the  concurrence  of  the 
elders,  over  the  members  who  offended  against  the  law. 
The  culprit  was  stripped  from  his  shoulders  to  his  middle, 
and  bound  by  the  hand  to  a  low  pillar,  so  that  he  was 
obliged  to  lean  forward  and  present  his  back  to  the  scourge. 
The  law  forbade  the  infliction  of  more  than  forty  stripes, 
Deut.  XXV,  3  ;  and  in  order  to  be  sure  not  to  exceed  this 
number,  the  Jews  usually  restricted  the  punishment  to 
thirty-nine.  It  was  usually  inflicted  by  thirteen  blows  from 
an  instrument  with  three  cords  or  lashes.  The  punishment 
of  scourging  in  a  synagogue,  was  to  be  considered  rather  as 
a  fatherly  correction  than  as  a  public  shameful  punishment ; 
but  it  was  often  abused  for  vindictive  or  persecuting  pur- 
poses. The  apostle  Paul  seems  to  record  five  such  punish- 
ments having  been  inflicted  upon  him,  2  Cor.  xi,  24 ;  doubt- 


246  JEWISH  NATION. 

less  with  severity,  from  hatred  to  Christianity.  Our  Lord 
alluded  to  the  same  punishment,  (Matt,  x,  IV  ;  xxiii,  34,) 
when  he  told  his  disciples  that  they  should  be  scourged  in 
the  synagogues.  In  Luke  xii,  11,  there  is  reference  to  these 
courts  of  judgment.  Saul  desired  letters  to  the  synagogues 
in  Damascus  with  the  same  design.  Acts  ix,  2. 

Excommunication,  or  casting  out,  was  a  very  serious  pun- 
ishment. The  offender  on  whom  this  sentence  passed, 
was  shut  out  from  joining  the  public  prayers  and  religious 
services ;  he  was  looked  upon  as  a  mere  heathen,  and  de- 
barred of  all  the  pri\ileges  enjoyed  by  a  descendant  of 
Abraham.  This  most  severe  sentence  was  denounced  against 
all  who  confessed  that  Jesus  was  the  Christ,  John  ix,  22  ; 
accordingly  the  blind  man  who  had  been  restored  to  sight 
by  our  Lord  was  cast  out,  or  excommunicated,  when  he 
declared  his  belief  of  the  Divine  nature  of  the  person  by 
whose  word  the  miracle  was  accomplished. 

In  the  schools  taught  in  the  synagogues,  the  youth  re- 
ceived instruction  as  to  the  Divine  law.  In  the  temple,  as 
well  as  in  the  synagogues,  assemblies  of  learned  men  were 
held ;  in  one  of  which  the  parents  of  our  Lord  found  him, 
sitting  in  the  midst  of  the  doctors,  both  hearing  them  and 
asking  them  questions,  and  all  that  heard  him  were  aston- 
ished at  his  understanding  and  answers.  Lightfoot  describes 
three  such  schools,  or  places  for  lectures  and  inquiries,  which 
were  held  regularly  within  the  precincts  of  the  temple  ;  one 
of  these  was  the  sanhedrim,  when  not  occupied  as  a  court 
of  judgment :  he  thinks  it  is  possible  that  may  have  been 
the  place  where  our  Lord  was  found. 

Observe  the  striking  similarity  between  the  sendees  of 
the  Christian  churches  and  th^  Jewish  synagogues.  Here 
is  also  clearly  seen  the  identity  of  the  spiritual  worship  of 
the  first  and  second  dispensations,  distinct  from  the  ordinan- 
ces of  the  worldly  sanctuary  of  the  first  covenant,  which 
were  figures  for  the  time  then  present,  but  were  done  away 
when  Christ  came  as  a  High  Priest  of  good  things  to  come, 
Heb.  ix,  11. 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  247 


CHAPTER  XV. 


PRIVATE  DEVOTIONS  OF  THE  JEWS — FASTS,   PUBLIC 
AND   PRIVATE. 

The  private  devotions  of  the  Jews  next  claim  notice. 
Enough  has  been  said  on  the  subject  of  their  prayers,  to 
show  that  prayer  was  considered  an  individual  as  well  as  a 
national  duty.  Nor  is  there  occasion  here  to  enlarge  upon 
that  secret  communion  with  God,  which  will  ever  be  the 
object  of  the  devout  soul,  its  privilege  as  well  as  its  duty. 
By  such,  a  compliance  with  the  injunction  of  the  apostle, 
"Praying  always,"  (Eph.  vi,  18,)  will  be  accounted  a  privi- 
lege, and  not  be  viewed  as  a  burden ;  believers  seek  to  live 
always  in  a  prayerful  spirit.  Nor  will  the  rule  of  the 
Psalmist,  (Psa.  cxix,  164,)  to  call  upon  God  seven  times  a 
day,  be  deemed  a  yoke  too  heavy  to  be  borne.  The  seasons 
for  intercourse  with  our  blessed  Lord  and  Saviour  will  be- 
come more  and  more  frequent,  although  not  regulated  by 
any  precise  enumeration,  or  defined  form  of  words. 

The  stated  hours  of  prayer  among  the  Jews  were  the 
third  and  ninth,  or  nine  in  the  morning,  and  six  in  the  after- 
noon. In  the  later  times,  the  repeating  of  the  shema, 
(see  p.  240,)  twice  every  day,  was  expressly  required  from 
every  Jew.  Wotton  considers  that  our  Lord  alluded  to 
this,  when  he  answered  the  lawyer  as  to  what  was  the  first 
and  great  commandment  of  the  law.  Our  Lord  answered 
from  the  shema,  which  at  once  satisfied  this  scribe,  who  was 
accustomed  to  recite  these  words  daily.  But  when  the  spirit 
of  Pharisaism  prevailed,  long  formularies  were  set  forth,  to 
be  repeated  at  these  hours,  wherever  persons  might  be.  We 
learn  from  Matt,  vi,  5,  that  the  Pharisees  were  pleased 
when  these  hours  found  them  in  the  streets,  and  that  they 
not  only  recited  their  prayers  in  public,  but  at  the  corners 
of  the  streets,  where  they  might  be  seen  by  the  passengers 
in  more  than  one  place  of  resort.  Wotton  has  given  a  full 
description  of  these  postures  in  prayer.  They  denoted  hu- 
miliation, and  were  various,  as  the  following  texts  show,  and 
that  the  prayer  was  mental  as  well  as  audible  :  Exod.  ix, 
29  ;  xxxiv,  8 ;  Isa.  i,  15  ;  1  Sam.  i,  13  ;  Lukexviii,  11, 13  ; 
Psa.    cxliii,   6 ;    cxli,  2 ;    2   Chron.  vi,   13 ;    Ezra  ix,  5 ; 


248  JEWISH  NATION. 

Lam.  iii,  41 ;  Dan.  vi,  10 ;  Matt,  xxvi,  39 ;  Acts  vii,  60 ; 
1  Tim.  ii,  1. 

Prayers  were  offered  both  standing  and  kneeling,  and 
even  prostrate  on  the  ground  when  the  supphant  was 
deeply  agonized,  as  Matt,  xxvi,  39.  Kneeling  was  consi- 
dered the  most  proper,  as  expressing  humility,  contrition, 
and  subjection.  Thus  Solomon,  2  Chron.  vi,  13 ;  Ezra  ix,  5  ; 
Stephen,  Acts  vii,  60.  The  pubhcan,  deeply  in  earnest, 
smote  on  his  breast  while  he  prayed,  "  God  be  merciful  to 
me,  a  sinner  !"  Luke  xviii,  13,  Frequently  the  hands  were 
expanded  or  raised  up  in  prayer.  Thus  St.  Paul  speaks  of 
praying  everywhere,  lifting  up  holy  hands,  1  Tim.  ii,  8. 
The  followers  of  Shammai  said  that  men  ought  literally  to 
he  down  in  their  evening  devotional  services,  and  quoted 
the  words  of  Deut.  vi,  V.  These  peculiar  postures  in  prayer 
may  also  be  considered  as  outward  testimonies  that  the 
offerer  was  engaged  in  worship.  Upon  this  subject  it  is 
sufficient  to  observe,  that  the  posture  cannot  be  of  essential 
consequence  :  but  this  drawing  near  to  the  great  Sovereign 
of  heaven  and  earth,  should  be  done  with  reverence  in  man- 
ner, as  well  as  in  the  matter  of  the  petitions  offered  ;  and  it 
is  well  to  use  such  a  posture  as  may  promote  spirituality  in 
our  feelings,  and  keep  our  attention  alive  to  the  petitions 
we  offer ;  for  who  has  not  often  groaned  in  bitterness  of 
soul  for  the  wanderings  of  his  mind  in  prayer  ? 

That  forms  of  prayer  were  in  use  among  the  Jews  in  the 
time  of  our  Lord  is  evident,  not  only  from  the  traditions  of 
the  Jewish  writers,  but  from  the  request  of  the  disciples  to 
Christ,  who,  in  compliance  with  their  petition,  gave  them  a 
model  by  which  they  might  frame  their  prayers,  and  which 
might  serve  as  a  form  for  those  unable  to  extend  their  sup- 
plications farther.  This  was,  in  fact,  the  practice  at  that 
time,  a  short  summary  being  prepared  for  those  unable  to 
learn  the  whole  routine  of  the  shema.  Wotton  has  given 
the  form  at  length,  as,  probably,  it  was  used  in  the  time  of 
our  Lord.  It  is  too  long  for  insertion  here.  He  says, 
"How  great  is  the  difference  between  these  and  the  Lord's 
prayer !  What  vain  repetitions  are  many  times  here  !  What 
little  variation  of  sense,  and  yet  how  great  a  multitude  and 
variety  of  words  !"  In  these  prayers  of  the  Jews  very  few 
of  the  necessities  of  hfe  are  pointed  at.  No  resignation  to 
the  will  of  God,  no  confession  of  human  frailty,  appear 


RITES  AND  WORSHlf .  249 

tliroughout  the  whole ;  but  chiefly  a  magnificent  ostentation 
of  God's  great  and  miraculous  mercies,  so  spoken  of,  as  if 
they  thought  themselves  worthy  of  all  the  things  which  had 
been  wrought  for  their  forefathers. 

With  respect  to  our  Lord's  prayer,  it  has  been  shown 
that  the  Jewish  prayers  then  in  use  contained  some  similar 
expressions.  It  adopted  and  concentrated  the  following 
clauses  contained  in  their  prayers :  "  Our  Father  who  art  in 
heaven,  be  gracious  unto  us !  O  Lord  our  God,  hallowed 
be  thy  name,  and  let  the  remembrance  of  thee  be  glorified 
in  heaven  above,  and  upon  earth  here  below.  Let  thy 
kingdom  reign  over  us  now  and  forever.  The  holy  men 
of  old  said,  Remit  and  forgive  unto  all  men  whatsoever 
they  have  done  against  me.  And  lead  us  not  into  tempta- 
tion, but  deliver  us  from  the  evil  thing.  For  thine  is  the 
kingdom,  and  thou  shalt  reign  in  glory  forever  and  ever- 
more." Some  formularies  of  prayer,  directed  in  Numbers 
and  Deuteronomy,  have  been  already  noticed. 

In  reference  to  this  prayer,  Montgomery  beautifully  ob- 
serves, "  How  many  millions  and  millions  of  times  has  that 
prayer  been  preferred  by  Christians  of  all  denominations ! 
So  wide,  indeed,  is  the  sound  thereof  gone  forth,  that  daily, 
and  almost  without  intermission,  from  the  ends  of  the  earth, 
and  afar  off  upon  the  sea,  it  is  ascending  to  heaven,  like  in- 
cense and  a  pure  oflfering.  Nor  needs  it  the  gift  of  pro- 
phecy to  foretell  that,  although  *  heaven  and  earth  shall 
pass  away,'  these  words  of  our  blessed  Lord  '  shall  not  pass 
away,'  till  every  petition  in  it  has  been  answered,  till  the 
kingdom  of  God  shall  come,  and  his  will  be  done  in  earth 
as  it  is  in  heaven." 

Fasting  was  often  connected  with  prayer,  both  in  public 
and  private.  The  great  day  of  atonement  was  a  solemn 
national  fast,  on  which  the  people  were  "to  afflict  their 
souls ;"  an  expression  which  showed  that  the  service  was 
to  be  spiritual.  They  were  to  lament  for  their  past  sins 
and  iniquities,  and  to  humble  themselves  before  the  Lord. 
This  was  the  only  public  and  general  fast  dii^ected  by  the 
law ;  but  fasts  were  also  held  on  other  occasions,  by  direc- 
tion of  the  supreme  authority :  see  Judg.  xx,  26 ;  1  Sam. 
vii,  6  ;  2  Sam.  iii,  35 ;  2  Chron.  xx,  3  ;  Isa.  Iviii,  3-12 ; 
Jer.  XXX vi,  9.  The  case  of  the  solemn  fast  ordered  by 
Jezebel  in  the  name  of  Ahab,  (1  Kings  xxi,  9,)  is  an  instance 
11* 


250  JEWISH    NATION- 

of  a  fast  ordered  by  authority,  but  to  cloak  a  most  wicked 
purpose.  Ezra  and  his  company  fasted  at  the  river  Ahava, 
when  they  implored  the  Divine  blessing  on  their  journey, 
and  the  undertaking  connected  with  it,  Ezra  viii,  21.  After 
the  captivity,  four  regular  days  for  fasting  were  appointed, 
which  are  enumerated  Zech.  viii,  19.  One  was  in  the 
fourth  month,  to  commemorate  the  famine  in  Jerusalem, 
when  there  was  no  bread  left  in  the  city,  Jer,  lii,  6  ;  Lam. 
ii,  12,  20.  This  also  is  thought  to  have  had  some  reference 
to  the  breaking  of  the  tables  of  stone  by  Moses,  (Exod. 
xxxi,  19,)  and  the  erecting  an  idol  in  the  temple  by  Ma- 
nasseh,  2  Chron.  xxxiii,  1.  One,  in  the  fifth  month,  for  the 
destruction  of  the  temple,  mentioned  Zech.  vii,  3.  In  the 
seventh  month,  on  account  of  the  murder  of  Gedaliah,  Jer. 
xh,  2.  And  another  in  the  tenth  month,  for  the  beginning 
of  the  siege  of  Jerusalem  by  Nebuchadnezzar.  Public  fasts 
were  also  appointed  in  times  of  danger,  Joel  i,  14;  ii,  12. 
To  abstain  from  food,  and  publicly  to  show  humiliation  and 
sorrow  for  sin,  is  a  duty,  a  proceeding  intelligible  even  to 
the  heathen ;  there  is  a  striking  instance  recorded  in  the 
Book  of  Jonah,  iii,  7 ;  the  fast  at  Nineveh  was  so  general, 
that  even  the  cattle  were  kept  from  food. 

The  private  fasts  were  numerous  in  the  latter  days  of  the 
Jewish  state;  some  were  observed  publicly  in  the  syna- 
gogues. Many  persons  fasted  twice  in  the  Aveek,  on  the 
second  and  fifth  days ;  and  every  month  had  its  fasts.  In 
the  month  Abib,  they  fasted  on  the  1st,  for  the  death  of 
Nadab  and  Abihu,  Num.  iii,  4  ;  on  the  10th,  for  the  death 
of  Miriam,  xx,  1 ;  on  the  24th,  for  the  death  of  Joshua, 
Josh,  xxiv,  29  ;  and  the  29th,  when  they  prayed  for  the 
latter  rain,  Deut.  xi,  1 4  :  but  it  is  needless  to  enumerate  all 
these  fasts ;  Ave  may  suppose  that  they  were  not  fully  ob- 
served by  the  people  in  general,  although  the  Pharisees 
might  make  a  public  appearance  of  fasting  often.  Our 
Lord's  reference  to  their  conduct,  (Matt,  xxiii,  2-33,)  Avhen 
he  severely  censured  it,  would  include  their  private  fasts 
also :  and  some  fasted  on  the  day  before  the  new  moon,  on 
the  anniversaries  of  the  death  of  relatives,  or  of  other  se- 
vere calamities ;  but  these  fasts  were  not  to  be  held  on  the 
Sabbath,  or  any  festival,  nor  on  the  sixth  day  of  the  week. 
The  disciples  of  John  fasted  often,  Luke  v,  33  :  this  was  a 
religious  observance,  characteristic  of  the  solemn  mission  of 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  261 

John  the  Baptist.  The  fasts  always  began  in  the  evening, 
and  continued  till  the  following  evening.  From  Zech.  xii, 
12-14,  it  appears  that  the  male  and  female  parts  of  the 
families  were  apart  from  each  other  on  the  days  of  fasting. 
No  pecuhar  ceremonials  were  directed,  but  the  public  ser- 
vices were  those  usual  at  the  time  when  the  fasts  happened 
to  be  held.  In  1  Sam.  vii,  6,  is  mention  of  water  being 
poured  out  on  a  fast-day.  This  might  be  intended  as  a 
symbolical  expression  of  the  pouring  forth  of  the  heart,  re- 
quired at  such  a  season.  In  Jer.  xxxvi,  6,  we  find  Jere- 
miah was  ordered  to  read  the  Divine  warnings  of  the  ap- 
proaching national  judgments,  to  the  people  assembled  on 
that  day  in  the  temple.  On  these  occasions,  outward  ap- 
pearances of  grief  were  manifested :  coarse  garments  were 
worn;  rent  and  disordered  apparel  conveyed  an  idea  of 
sorrow  and  grief;  ashes  were  scattered  on  the  head,  whe- 
ther the  occasion  were  pubhc  or  private,  2  Sam.  iii,  31 ; 
Psa.  XXXV,  13 ;  Isa.  Iviii,  5 ;  Lam.  ii,  10 ;  Joel  i,  13,  14 ; 
the  countenance  was  downcast ;  weeping  and  the  voice  of 
supplication  were  heard,  as  Judg.  ii,  4  ;  Jer.  iii,  21 ;  xxxi,  9. 
Against  assuming  such  outward  appearances  of  grief  our 
Lord  cautioned  his  disciples,  Matt,  vi,  16,  17.  Thus,  also, 
the  prophet  Joel  exhorted  the  people  to  rend  their  hearts, 
and  not  their  garments,  ii,  13.  The  fasting  of  Esther  and 
her  attendants,  before  she  ventured  into  the  king's  presence 
to  entreat  for  the  lives  of  her  people,  is  a  striking  instance, 
both  of  the  observance  of  this  rite  and  of  its  efficacy,  when 
accompanied  by  the  prayer  of  faith,  Est.  iv,  14. 

Upon  the  subject  of  fasting,  it  is  well  to  observe,  that  it 
is  of  use  as  a  help  to  a  devotional  spirit ;  therefore,  when 
carried  to  such  an  extent  as  to  weaken  the  system,  and  to 
render  the  body  unfit  for  religious  exercises,  it  cannot  be 
rightly  considered  as  an  acceptable  service.  Thus  the  rigid 
observances  of  some  of  the  ancient  hermits,  and  of  some 
Popish  monastic  orders  of  modern  date,  are  equally  distant 
from  the  spirit  Avhich  should  actuate  the  followers  of  Christ. 
Such  fasts  are  no  better  than  the  fasts  of  the  Pharisees, 
fl^fiinst  which  our  Lord  distinctly  cautioned  his  disciples. 
That  degree  of  abstinence  which  will  promote  liveliness  of 
spirit  is  desirable  ;  even  as  the  hearty  feeling  and  repletion, 
which  indisposes  the  mind  for  communion  with  God,  and 
attendance  on  his  worsliip,  is  to  be  avoided.     Let  the  reader 


252  JEWISH  NATION. 

turn  to  Isa.  Iviii,  3-7,  where  it  is  clearly  stated  what  absti- 
nence is  acceptable  to  God.  Little,  however,  need  be  said 
at  the  present  day  to  caution  persons  against  carrying  ab- 
stinence too  far.  If  we  look  round  our  public  assemblies, 
we  see  a  very  different  appearance  from  that  which  our 
Lord  often  witnessed  in  the  synagogues  in  his  time,  and 
which  he  describes.  Matt,  vi,  16.'  He  would  doubtless  now 
rather  caution  against  the  contrary  extreme.  Having  thus 
noticed  passages  which  condemn  fasting  in  a  wrong  spirit, 
and  for  wrong  purposes,  let  us  refer  to  some  texts  which 
show  what  right  fasting  is.  Let  the  reader  bear  these  in 
mind,  as  the  Scripture  rule  under  the  Christian,  as  well  as 
under  the  Jewish  dispensation:  Psa.  xxxv,  13;  Ixix,  10; 
Dan,  ix,  3  ;  Joel  ii,  12  ;  Luke  ii,  37 ;  Acts  xiii,  2,  3. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 
PURIFICATIONS. 

The  purifications  connected  with  the  worship  of  the  Jews 
require  notice  here ;  although  they  were  often  observed  by 
the  performance  of  vows,  which  belong  to  another  part  of 
our  subject,  as  Acts  xxi,  23,  24.  Washings,  or  ablutions, 
are  generally  among  the  most  ancient  religious  ceremonies 
of  every  nation  ;  but  the  simplicity  of  the  rites  of  purifica- 
tion, directed  by  the  Divine  law,  was  well  calculated  to 
guard  the  Israelites  against  the  use  of  the  superstitious,  and 
often  barbarous  rites  practiced  by  the  heathen  for  lustra- 
tions. There  was  a  washing  of  the  whole  body,  used  at  the 
admission  of  Jewish  proselytes  in  later  times,  and  in  some 
ablutions  commanded  by  the  law,  Exod.  xxix,  4  ;  Lev.  xiv,  8, 
and  elsewhere.  There  was  also  a  pouring  of  water  on  the 
feet  and  hands,  or  sprinkling  it,  Deut.  xxi,  6  ;  Num.  viii,  V  ; 
xix,  18.  Sometimes  the  water  was  mixed  with  ashes  of  the 
red  heifer  already  mentioned.  In  the  solemn  sacrifices, 
sprinkling  the  blood  was  an  indispensable  ceremony,  typi- 
fying Christ's  shedding  his  blood  for  our  sins,  1  Pet.  i,  #; 
Lev.  i,  5.  Also  anointing  with  oil  was  sometimes  used,  as 
with  respect  to  the  tabernacle  and  its  furniture,  Exod. 
XXX,  26-28 ;  or,  as  in  the  cleansing  the  leper,  Lev.  xiv,  27-29 ; 
but  the  anointing  was  more  frequently  used  in  consecrating 


RITES  AND   WORSHIP.  253 

or  setting  apart  to  an  office,  Exod.  xxviii,  41.  The  holy  oil, 
as  Mather  observes,  signified  the  Spirit  of  God ;  the  anoint- 
ing therewith,  the  communication  of  the  Spirit  in  the  saving 
graces,  and  in  the  Divine  joys  and  consolations  of  it.  Also 
the  anointing  of  the  priests,  signified  the  anointing  of  Jesus 
Christ  with  the  Spirit  beyond  measure,  Psa.  xlv,  7  ;  John 
iii,  34.  This  is  called  the  resting  of  the  Spirit  upon  him, 
Isa.  xi,  2.  Those  appointed  to  the  kingly  office  were  also 
anointed  with  oil :  thus  "  Samuel  took  a  vial  of  oil,  and 
poured  it  upon  his  (Saul's)  head,"  1  Sam.  x,  1. 

The  numerous  cases  in  which  washing,  pouring,  and 
sprinkling  of  water  were  enjoined,  all  intimated  the  neces- 
sity of  purity  in  heart  and  life,  without  which  God  could 
not  be  approached  acceptably,  either  in  public  or  private 
devotions.  These  observances,  also,  were  conducive  to  the 
general  health;  for  attention  to  the  holy  precepts  of  the 
Bible  profits  the  body  as  well  as  the  soul. 

The  custom  of  washing  the  hands  before  and  after  meals 
has  always  prevailed  in  the  East,  and  has  been  fully  de- 
scribed. But  to  this  simple  washing,  as  in  many  other 
matters,  the  later  Jews  added  superstitious  and  burdensome 
observances  to  the  customs  of  their  forefathers,  and  the 
plain  directions  of  the  law.  Our  blessed  Lord  condemns 
the  extent  to  which  the  Pharisees  carried  these  require- 
ments. Tliere  was  to  be  a  certain  quantity  of  water  used, 
and  the  hands  and  arms  must  be  washed  in  a  certain 
manner,  and  to  a  certain  height ;  and  this  repeated,  if  not 
done  at  first  exactly  as  was  customary.  Again,  for  some 
sorts  of  food  more  washings  were  required  than  for  others : 
before  bread  was  eaten  the  hands  must  be  washed  with  care, 
but  dry  fruits  might  be  eaten  with  unwashed  hands.  Many 
directions  were  given  on  these  subjects  by  the  Jewish  doc- 
tors, and  these  caused  our  Lord's  dispute  with  the  scribes 
and  Pharisees,  Mark  vii,  2-8.  This  law  was  even  made  a 
hindrance  to  the  reading  of  the  Bible.  If  a  person,  other- 
wise clean,  touched  any  part  of  the  Scriptures,  he  might 
not  eat  till  he  washed  his  hands.  The  reason  assigned  for 
this  was,  that  possibly  the  books,  which  often  had  been 
laid  up  in  secret  places,  might  have  been  gnawed  by  mice ! 
Surely  this  plainly  shows  what  spirit  dictated  such  rules. 

So  scrupulous  were  the  Pharisees  as  to  these  purifications, 
that  the  Jewish  writers  relate  a  story  of  a  certain  rabbi,  who 


•254  JEWISH  NATION. 

was  imprisoned  in  a  dungeon  with  a  scanty  allowance  of 
food  and  water.  One  day  a  part  of  the  water  being  acci- 
dentally spilled,  he  chose  to  use  the  small  quantity  that  re- 
mained for  his  washings,  at  the  hazard  of  perishing  with 
thirst,  rather  than  to  drink  what  was  left,  and  omit  his  usual 
purifications.  Well  might  these  observances  be  character- 
ized as  a  yoke  too  heavy  to  be  borne,  Acts  xv,  10.  These 
"  divers  washings  "  are  censured  by  the  apostle  Paul,  (Heb. 
ix,  10,)  among  other  ceremonial  rites  to  which  the  Jews 
clung  with  extreme  pertinacity. 

M'Caul  refers  to  these  endless  distinctions,  with  which 
the  observance  of  the  simple  precept  to  wash  the  hands  is 
encumbered,  as  a  decided  proof  that  the  rabbinical  commands 
are  a  religion  of  men's  making.  This  is  the  first  observance 
with  which  the  Jew  begins  his  day ;  but  there  are  so  many 
points  to  be  observed,  that  scarcely  any  Jew  can  be  sure 
he  has  observed  them  all ;  and  yet,  let  it  be  remembered, 
that  if  they  fail  in  any  one  point,  the  hands  are  considered 
as  unwashed,  consequently  they  are  unfit  for  prayer,  or  to 
eat  particular  sorts  of  bread.  Take  another  example :  "  All 
bread  that  has  salt  in  it  requires  washing  of  hands  after  it, 
lest  perhaps  it  might  be  the  salt  of  Sodom,  or  salt  of  the 
same  nature,  and  a  man  might  pass  his  hands  over  his  eyes 
and  become  bhnd."  Another  precept  declares,  that  in 
washing,  a  man  must  pour  water  on  his  hands  three  times, 
for  an  evil  spirit  rests  upon  them  before  washing,  which  will 
not  depart  till  the  water  has  been  poured  thiee  times. 
Those  who  despise  these  washings  are  considered  as  ex- 
communicated, liable  to  fall  into  poverty,  and  to  be  rooted 
Dut  of  the  world.  Nay,  to  neglect  in  this  instance  is  de- 
clared to  be  as  guilty  as  to  break  the  seventh  command- 
ment. These  were  some  of  the  precepts  by  which  the 
scribes  and  Pharisees  imposed  burdens  too  heavy  to  oe 
borne,  making  the  law  of  God  a  terror  and  a  cruel  imposi- 
tion; from  this  bondage  our  Lord  set  them  free.  Yet,  even 
at  the  present  day,  these  observances  are  enforced  among 
the  Jews,  and  they  falsely  declare,  "  Blessed  art  thou,  O 
Lord  our  God,  king  of  the  universe !  who  hath  sanctified  us 
with  his  commandments,  and  commanded  us  to  cleanse  our 
hands."  But  under  the  Old  Testanjent  and  the  Mosaic  dis- 
pensation we  find  Samuel  expressly  declaring,  "  Man  looketh 
on  the  outward  appearance,  but  God  looketh  on  the  heart." 


RITES  AND   WORSHIP.  255 


A   JEW   LIGHTING    THE   SABBATH   CANDLE. 

CHAPTER  XYII. 

THE  SABBATH — FESTIVAL  OF  THE  NEW  MOON — FEAST  OP 
TRUMPETS. 

The  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  or  the  rest  of  the  seventh 
day,  being  especially  enjoined  by  one  of  the  ten  command- 
ments, it  will  come  most  properly  under  notice  as  one  of 
those  laws,  except  that  notice  may  here  be  taken  of  the 
ceremonial  or  ritual  services  and  observance  of  that  day. 

It  is  evident,  from  many  passages  in  Scripture,  that  this 
day  was  not  usually  kept  holy  to  the  Lord  as  it  should 
have  been.  There  were  many  who  considered  it  a  burden, 
because  it  debarred  them  from  their  usual  pursuits ;  who, 
as  Amos  states,  (viii,  5,)  longed  for  the  time  when  the  Sab- 
bath should  be  gone,  that  they  might  continue  their  fraud- 
ulent traffic  ;  or,  as  Isaiah  denounces,  (Iviii,  13,)  sought  their 
own  pleasure  on  that  day.  How  similar  are  the  evil  desires 
and  the  evil  practices  of  men  in  every  age  !  After  the  cap- 
tivity, more  attention  was  paid  to  the  outward  observance ; 
and  tlie  Book  of  Nehemiah  (see  x,  xiii,  particularly  the  latter 


256  JEWISH   NATION. 

chapter)  shows  the  active  measures  taken  by  that  ruler,  to 
hinder  the  people  of  the  land  from  compelling,  or  inducing 
the  Jews  to  break  the  Sabbath  by  trading,  as  well  as  to 
prevent  the  Jews  themselves  from  piirsuing  their  ordinary 
labors  on  that  holy  day.  But  it  is  possible  to  err  by  going 
into  one  extreme  as  well  as  another;  it  was  so  with  the 
Jews.  Before  the  captivity,  the  Sabbath  was  neglected, 
2  Chron.  xxxvi,  21 ;  Neh.  xiii,  18  ;  afterwards  the  outward 
observance  became  superstitious.  When  the  Maccabees 
first  took  up  arms  against  their  oppressors,  the  Jews  carried 
their  observance  of  the  Sabbath  so  far,  as  to  allow  their 
enemies  to  attack  and  massacre  them  without  resistance  on 
that  day ;  but  Mattathias  explained  to  his  countrymen  that 
this  could  not  be  right,  and  from  that  time  the  Jews  fought 
in  their  own  defense  on  the  Sabbath,  although  they  would 
not  on  that  day  attack  their  foes.  In  more  than  one  in- 
stance, their  enemies  took  advantage  of  this  forbearance  ;  as 
late  as  the  time  of  Pompey,  that  Roman  general  took  Jeru- 
salem by  pushing  forward  the  works  of  the  siege  on  the 
Sabbath  ;  on  that  day  placing  his  engines,  and  battering  the 
w^alls  in  places  which  could  not  have  been  approached  had 
the  Jews  fought  against  him. 

In  the  days  when  our  blessed  Lord  was  upon  earth,  the 
privileges  of  the  Sabbath  were  so  lost,  under  the  ceremo- 
nial additions  of  the  Pharisees,  that  Christ,  as  Lord  of  the 
Sabbath,  openly  showed  his  disregard  of  these  traditional 
innovations,  and  reverted  to  the  simple  and  merciful  design 
of  the  institution,  declaring  that  the  Sabbath  was  made  for 
man,  not  man  for  the  Sabbath,  Mark  ii,  27,  28 ;  Luke  vi,  5. 

Let  us  now  see  how  the  Jews  kept  their  ceremonial  Sab- 
bath in  the  days  of  our  Saviour ;  considerable  information 
will  be  obtained  thereby  relative  to  several  circumstances 
in  the  Gospel  history.  About  three  on  the  Friday  after- 
noon began  what  was  called  the  eve,  or  the  preparation  for 
the^  Sabbath,  Mark  xv,  42.  The  people  ceased  from  their 
daily  labor  and  usual  employments,  and  prepared  food  for 
the  next  day,  as  no  fire  ought  then  to  be  kindled  ;  they 
trimmed  their  beards,  and  washed  their  faces,  hands,  and 
feet ;  this  the  rabbis  called  '*  meeting  king  Sabbath."  A 
little  before  sunset  they  lighted  what  was  called  the  Sab- 
bath candle  or  lamp ;  the  interval,  from  sunset  till  three  stars 
were  plainly  visible,  was  called,  "  between  the  suns,"  as 


RITES   AND   WORSHIP.  257 

they  were  in  doubt  to  which  day  it  belonged.  Whoever 
found  that  he  had  inadvertently  done  any  work  in  that  space, 
was  bound  to  bring  a  sin-offering.  The  reader  will  recol- 
lect that,  in  Judea,  the  time  of  sunset  did  not  vary  so 
much  as  in  more  northern  countries,  and  the  approach  of 
darkness  is  more  rapid  and  decided.  This  plan  of  reckon- 
ing the  day,  from  one  evening  to  the  next,  was  the  custom 
at  that  time,  being  founded  on  the  statement,  (Gen.  i,)  that 
the  evening  and  the  morning  made  the  first  day,  and  so 
on.  We  are  not  called  on  to  adopt  this  plan  now ;  and  the 
quiet,  entire  change  produced  by  a  night's  rest  is  an  import- 
ant separation  between  the  days  of  labor  and  the  Sabbath. 
When  the  Sabbath  began,  they  placed  food  on  the  table, 
better  than  their  usual  provision,  also  the  Sabbath  lamp. 
The  master  of  the  house  took  a  cup  of  wine,  and  after 
repeating  Gen.  ii,  1-3,  drank  it.  The  rest  of  the  family 
did  the  same,  and,  after  washing  their  hands,  began  supper. 
With  respect  to  the  lights  for  the  Sabbath,  one  rabbi  says, 
"  He  that  is  accustomed  to  take  great  care  in  trimming  his 
Sabbath  lamp  well,  will  have  children  who  shall  be  disciples 
of  the  wise ;"  the  having  a  handsome  Sabbath  lamp  was 
represented  to  be  as  necessary  as  providing  food.  A  hea- 
then Roman  poet  alludes  to  these  customary  lights,  and  the 
attempts  to  provide  a  supper  more  sumptuous  than  ordi- 
nary, in  the  following  lines  : — 

— But  Herod's  feast  returns  ! — 
Now  lamps  with  violet  deck'd  in  rows  depend, 
And  from  each  window  greasy  clouds  ascend. 
***** 

Now  the  red  dish  within  its  circling-  rim, 
Beholds  the  tail  of  some  poor  tunny  swim. 
Now  the  white  earthen  vessel  swims  with  wine. 

After  returning  thanks,  the  family  retired  to  rest.  Early 
the  next  morning,  they  attended  the  first  service  at  the 
synagogue,  or  perhaps  at  the  temple,  if  they  lived  in 
Jerusalem  ;  and  on  their  return  home  took  their  breakfast, 
which  was  the  second  Sabbath  meal.  They  then  went  to 
some  teacher  who  publicly  explained  the  traditions  of  the 
elders,  or  they  engaged  in  religious  duties  at  home.  At 
noon  they  dined,  and  the  afternoon  passed  away  till  the 
time  of  the  evening  sacrifice,  about  three  o'clock,  when 
they  again  went  to  the  temple,  or  to  a  synagogue ;  after 
which,  they  returned  home  to  eat  their  fourth  meal,  and 


258  JEWISH  NATION. 

continued  conversing  till  sunset,  when  the  Sabbath  ended. 
Just  before  that  time,  a  second  Sabbath  lamp  was  lighted, 
and  the  master  of  the  family  having  given  thanks  over  a 
cup  of  wine,  he  repeated  a  passage  of  Scripture,  as  Psa. 
cxvi,  13,  or  Esther  viii,  16,  and  pronounced  a  blessing,  by 
way  of  separation  between  the  Sabbath  and  the  working 
day,  then  about  to  begin.  The  chief  circumstance  to  be 
noticed  as  objectionable  in  these  observances  is,  that  on  the 
Sabbath  the  Jews  made  a  point  of  indulging  in  food,  and 
invited  company  more  than  on  any  other  day :  see  Luke 
xiv,  1.  It  is  not  to  be  a  day  of  abstinence  or  fasting,  but 
certainly  it  should  not  be  a  day  of  gluttony  and  feasting. 

The  Sabbath  was  to  be  strictly  a  day  of  rest,  except  for 
works  of  necessity  or  mercy.  That  public  notice  might  be 
given,  the  minister  of  the  synagogue  sounded  a  trumpet 
six  times  from  the  roof  of  the  building,  at  the  beginning 
and  at  the  end  of  the  Sabbath.  Still  further  to  make  it  a 
day  of  rest,  the  Jews  were  forbidden  to  walk  more  than  a 
Sabbath-day's  journey,  a  distance  of  2,000  cubits,  or  some- 
thing less  than  a  mile.  This  limitation  is  not  found  any- 
where in  Scripture ;  but  the  Jews  founded  the  tradition  on 
Exod.  xvi,  29,  "  Let  no  man  go  out  of  his  place  on  the 
Sabbath-day."  They  consider  that  the  distance  at  first 
was  twelve  miles,  that  being  the  extent  they  assign  to  the 
camp  in  the  wilderness,  but  that  after  the  settlement  in 
Canaan,  it  was  restricted  to  the  shorter  distance. 

The  restrictions  of  the  later  Jews  with  respect  to  the 
Sabbath-day  were  numerous,  fanciful,  and  very  burden- 
some. For  instance,  they  enumerated  thirty-nine  "  primi- 
tive" or  general  kinds  of  work,  from  which  they  made 
out  innumerable  others  as  "  derivatives."  To  plow  was  a 
primitive ;  to  dig  was  likewise  forbidden,  but  was  a  deriva- 
tive ;  to  reap  was  a  primitive ;  to  gather  ears  of  corn  was 
of  the  same  nature  as  reaping,  and  so  was  to  pluck  fruit. 
If  it  was  proved  that  any  one  had  broken  these  rules  pre- 
sumptuously, he  was  in  danger  of  being  stoned  ;  our  Lord 
therefore,  in  fact,  pleaded  for  the  lives  of  his  disciples, 
Matt,  xii,  1-8.  The  minute  points  to  which  these  rules 
were  extended,  and  the  fanciful  classification  of  them,  can 
scarcely  be  supposed  ;  for  instance,  to  chop  herbs  was 
considered  the  same  as  grinding.  The  distinctions  as  to 
healing  were  also  very  strict.     It  was  lawful  to  resort  to 


RITES   AND   WORSHIP.  259 

means  necessary  to  save  life ;  but  if  the  disease  were  of  a 
chronical  nature,  it  was  to  be  endured  on  tliat  day,  rather 
than  prepare  medicines  or  attempt  a  cure  on  the  Sabbath. 
Our  Lord  cured  the  bhnd  man  on  the  Sabbath-day,  not 
only  showing  his  miraculous  power  in  using  means  impro- 
per according  to  human  reason,  but  also  such  as  directly 
opposed  the  Jewish  traditions. 

Maimonides,  in  his  writings,  gives  the  following  decisions 
on  this  point :  "  Let  not  those  that  are  in  health  use  physic 
on  the  Sabbath-day.  Let  not  him  that  labors  under  a 
pain  in  his  loins  anoint  the  place  affected  with  oil  and  vine- 
gar, but  with  oil  he  may  if  it  is  not  oil  of  roses ;  nor  is  it 
lawful  to  rub  any  part  so  as  to  rub  the  skin  off!  He 
that  has  the  tooth-acbe,  let  him  not  take  vinegar  into  his 
mouth  to  spit  it  out  again,  but  he  may  to  swallow  it. 
He  that  has  a  sore  throat  let  him  not  gargle  it  with  oil, 
but  he  may  swallow  down  the  oil,  whence  if  he  receive  a 
cure  it  is  well.  Let  no  man  chew  mastich  or  rub  his 
teeth  with  spice  for  a  cure,  but  if  he  does  this  to  make 
his  mouth  taste  sweet  it  is  allowed.  They  do  not  put  wine 
into  a  sore  eye.  They  do  not  apply  fomentations  or  oils  to 
any  affected  part."  The  rules  for  using  physic  are  very 
numerous,  and  show  what  foolish  nostrums  were  latterly  in 
use  among  the  Jews.  Many  are  such  that  it  was  well  to 
be  restrained  from  using  them  at  any  time.  The  regula- 
tions of  the  Mishna,  respecting  the  Sabbath,  make  us  won- 
der how  such  enactments  could  have  been  made  by  rational 
beings.  Thus,  a  man  might  break  a  barrel  to  get  dried 
figs  out  of  it  to  eat  on  the  Sabbath,  but  he  must  not 
bore  a  hole  in  it  for  that  purpose.  The  evasions  were 
numerous.  One  man  might  not  do  any  forbidden  work 
alone  ;  but  if  two  joined  in  doing  it,  then  it  often  became 
lawful.  If  any  food  had  been  warmed  on  the  eve  of  the 
Sabbath,  it  might  be  heated  again.  A  man  might  ask  his 
neighbor  to  give  him  wine,  but  not  to  lend  it  to  him,  as  that 
might  tempt  the  lender  to  make  a  written  memorandum  on 
the  Sabbath.  One  other  case  may  be  related.  If  a  house  had 
two  balconies  on  different  stories,  projecting  out,  that  the 
inhabitants  might  draw  up  water  out  of  a  well  in  an  open 
court  beneath,  and  the  bucket  passed  through  a  hole  in  the 
lower  balcony  when  drawn  to  the  upper  one,  they  might 
not  use  it  on  the  Sabbath,  unless  an  inclosure  ten  palms 


260  JEWISH  NATION. 

high  was  made  round  the  mouth  of  the  well,  or  reaching 
downward  from  the  lower  balcony.  What  must  have  been 
the  state  of  a  people,  where  similar  regulations  without 
number  were  enforced,  or  even  devised ! 

The  stricter  Jews  did  not  allow  even  the  pulling  out  a 
beast  or  sheep  from  a  pit,  though  it  was  not  condemned 
by  the  teachers  as  unlawful;  see  Matt,  xii,  11.  They 
thought  it  enough  to  bring  food  and  fodder  to  the  place, 
unless  there  were  danger  from  its  remaining  there.  Christ's 
question  to  the  impotent  man  at  the  pool  of  Bethesda,  had 
reference,  not  to  his  desiring  to  be  healed — that  he  had 
shown  by  lying  there  so  long ;  but  the  inquiry  was,  whether 
he  would  be  healed  on  the  Sabbath;  thus  ascertaining 
whether  he  was  blindly  superstitious,  hke  the  Pharisaical 
rulers,  John  v,  6-9. 

Another  class  of  limitations  affected  the  removal  of  things. 
They  might  not  carry  a  burden  on  the  Sabbath,  but  they 
might  remote  articles  from  one  place  to  another.  Our 
Lord's  directions  to  the  man  at  Bethesda,  to  take  up  his 
bed  and  go  to  his  house,  was  plainly  in  opposition  to  these 
unscriptural  limitations.  It  was  both  a  trial  to  the  man's 
faith,  and  an  open  opposition  to  the  Jewish  superstitious 
observances.  Hereby  also  a  preparation  was  made  for  the 
change  of  the  Sabbath,  from  the  seventh  to  the  first  day  of 
the  week. 

One  method  of  observance,  by  which  the  later  Jews 
broke  the  Sabbath  while  they  pretended  to  be  strict  in  ob- 
serving it — ^their  feasting  on  that  day — has  already  been 
alluded  to.  The  extent  to  which  they  proceeded  in  this 
respect  appears  from  many  passages  in  the  Jewish  writings. 
One  of  their  rabbis  is  said  to  have  bought  flesh  from  thirteen 
butchers,  that  he  might  be  able  to  select  the  very  best ; 
another  seated  himself  upon  an  ivory  seat,  to  blow  the  fire 
for  warming  his  dinner,  thus  thinking  that  he  honored  the 
Sabbath,  although  the  precept  was  express,  that  no  fire 
should  be  kindled  on  that  day.  Lightfoot  notices  these 
customs  in  reference  to  the  statement,  (Luke  xiv,  1,)  "  that 
Christ  was  feasted  in  the  house  of  a  Pharisee  on  the  Sab- 
bath, when  he  healed  the  dropsical  man."  But  the  inter- 
pretation given  by  the  Jewish  writers  to  Isa.  Iviii,  13,  "  Thou 
shalt  call  the  Sabbath  a  delight,"  is  a  sufficient  proof  of  the 
dreadful  extent  to  which  these  blasphemous  practices  (for 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  261 

such  they  may  be  called)  were  carried.  They  blasphe- 
mously said,  "  We  must  live  more  delicately  on  the  Sabbath 
than  on  other  days  ;  and  he  is  highly  to  be  commended  who 
provides  the  most  delicious  fare  against  that  day.  He  that 
feasts  thrice  on  the  Sabbath  shall  be  delivered  from  the 
calamities  suffered  by  the  Messias,  from  the  judgment  of 
hell,  and  from  the  war  of  Gog  and  Magog !"  Too  often, 
indeed,  do  nominal  Christians  make  the  Sabbath  a  day  of 
surfeiting  and  drunkenness ;  and  others,  though  not  going 
to  this  extent,  yet  on  that  day  plainly  show  that  "their 
God  is  their  belly,"  Phil,  iii,  19. 

The  new  moons,  or  first  days  of  every  month,  were  ob- 
served with  peculiar  solemnities;  see  Num.  xxviii,  11-15. 
Additional  sacrifices  were  then  offered,  comprising  burnt, 
sin,  meat,  and  drink-offerings ;  and  trumpets  were  sounded 
during  the  oblations,  Psa.  Ixxxi,  3.  The  new  moons,  also, 
were  seasons  on  which  the  pious  Israelites  resorted  to  the 
prophets  and  public  teachers  to  hear  the  word  of  God, 
2  Kings  iv,  23 ;  Isa.  Ixvi,  23 ;  Ezek.  xlvi,  1  ;  Amos  viii,  5. 
From  what  passed  between  David  and  Jonathan,  (1  Sam. 
XX,  5,  18,)  the  new  moon  appears  to  have  been  observed  as 
a  public  festival.  This  period  is  regarded  by  the  modem 
Jews,  who  bless  God  for  having  created  the  moon,  and  for 
having  renewed  her  to  teach  the  Israehtes  that  they  ought 
to  become  new  creatures. 

Connected  with  this  observance  was  the  annual  festival 
of  the  feast  of  trumpets,  so  called  from  the  solemn  sounding 
of  the  trumpets  on  that  occasion.  Lev.  xxiii,  24 ;  Num. 
xxix,  1.  It  is  called  a  memorial  of  the  blowing  of  trumpets, 
but  it  is  not  easy  to  tell  of  what  it  was  a  memorial.  Patrick 
considers  that  it  was  a  memorial  of  the  creation  of  the 
world,  wherefore  the  ancient  beginning  of  the  year  was 
dated  from  that  time.  It  was  on  the  first  day  of  the  moon, 
in  the  autumnal  month  Tizri,  consequently  on  the  first  day 
of  the  civil  year ;  but  it  was  the  seventh  month,  according 
to  the  way  of  reckoning  the  ecclesiastical  year,  and  some 
suppose  that  it  was  honored  by  this  feast  as  a  Sabbatical 
month.  All  servile  work  was  forbidden,  a  holy  convocation 
of  the  people  assembled  on  this  day,  and  additional  sacri- 
fices were  offered.  In  the  later  times  of  the  Jewish  state, 
three  forms  of  public  benediction  were  read,  blessing  God 
as  the  author  of  the  seasons.     After  each  benediction,  three 


262  JEWISH  NATION. 

short  portions  or  verses  from  the  law,  and  as  many  from  the 
psalms  or  prophets  were  read,  concluding  with  another 
from  the  law ;  and  in  the  temple,  the  Levites  sang  the  81st 
Psalm.  Thus  the  feast  of  the  new  moons  was  held  as 
sanctifying  each  month,  and  the  feast  of  trumpets  sanctified 
each  year,  and  reminded  the  Israehtes  that  their  times  were 
in  God's  hands.  The  later  Jews  connected  the  observance 
of  this  day  with  a  superstitious  behef  that  God  then  sits  in 
judgment  on  the  actions  of  men,  and  that  records  are  made 
accordingly  in  a  book  of  life  for  the  just,  a  book  of  death 
for  the  wicked,  and  a  book  of  a  middle  state  for  those  not 
very  good  nor  very  bad  :  upon  such  an  unscriptural  idea  it 
is  unnecessary  to  offer  any  remarks.  Maimonides,  a  Jewish 
writer,  after  stating  that  the  good  and  bad  deeds  of  a  man 
are  balanced  against  each  other  on  this  day,  adds  the  fol- 
lowing useful  exhortation :  "  The  blowing  of  the  trumpet  on 
the  new-year's  day  is  an  ordinance  of  Scripture,  and  there 
is  intimation  in  it  as  saying.  Ye  sleepers,  awake  from  your 
sleep  ;  and  je  who  are  in  a  deep  sleep,  arise  from  your  deep 
sleep ;  search  into  your  actions,  turn  with  repentance,  and 
remember  your  Creator.  Ye  who  have  become  forgetful 
of  truth,  by  pursuing  vain  and  temporary  things,  and  have 
been  absorbed  the  whole  year  in  vain  and  idle  matters, 
which  can  neither  avail  nor  deliver  you,  look  after  your 
souls,  amend  your  manners  and  your  deeds ;  and  may  every 
one  of  you  forsake  his  wicked  ways  and  his  ungodly 
thoughts." 

The  beginnings  of  the  months  and  years  were  not  settled 
by  a  regular  calculation,  but  by  the  actual  appearance  of 
the  new  moon.  Persons  were  appointed  to  watch  on  the 
tops  of  the  mountains  for  its  first  appearance  after  the  change. 
As  soon  as  they  saw  it,  they  inforaaed  the  sanhedrim,  and 
public  notice  was  given  through  the  land.  This  notice  at 
first  was  given  by  lighting  fires  upon  the  high  places ;  but, 
as  the  Samaritans  sometimes  caused  deceptions  by  making 
false  fires,  latterly  the  notice  was  given  by  messengers,  in 
the  seven  months  in  which  the  most  important  festivals  oc- 
curred. But  if  the  moon  was  not  seen  on  the  night  follow- 
ing the  thirtieth  day,  they  made  the  next  day  the  first  of 
the  following  month.  Hence  there  was  sometimes  a  differ- 
ence of  a  day  as  to  the  beginning  of  a  month ;  and  persons 
came  forward  who  had  seen  the  new  moon  when  the  watchers 


RITES   AND   WORSHIP.  2G3 

had  not  observed  it :  whence,  at  times,  disputes  arose  as  to 
the  proper  day  for  the  great  festivals,  particularly  the  pass- 
over  ;  and  the  sanhedrim  latterly  commanded  that  the  first 
statement  should  be  followed,  and  not  corrected,  even  if 
other  evidence  proved  it  to  be  wrong. 

The  solemn  sounding  of  the  trumpets  reminds  of  that 
great  and  solemn  day,  "when  the  trumpet  shall  sound,  and 
the  dead  shall  be  raised,"  1  Cor.  xv,  52.  To  this  awful 
moment,  perhaps,  these  soundings  of  the  trumpets  were  in- 
tended to  have  particular  reference.  But  the  blowing  of 
the  trumpet  is  also  considered  to  betoken  the  glad  sound 
of  the  gospel,  as  the  trumpet  of  the  jubilee.  Lev.  xxv,  9. 
In  either  case  it  is  a  rousing  sound. 

Awake  !  again  the  gospel-trump  is  blown  ; 
From  year  to  year  it  swells  with  louder  tone  ; 

From  ye  V  to  year  the  sounds  of  wrath 

Are  gathering  round  the  Judge's  path  ; 
Strange  words  fulfiU'd,  and  mighty  works  achieved, 
And  truth  in  all  the  world  both  hated  and  believed. 

But  what  are  heaven's  alarms  to  hearts  that  cower 
In  willful  slumber,  deepening  every  hour. 

That  draw  their  curtains  closer  round, 

The  nearer  swells  the  trumpet's  sound  1 
Lord,  ere  our  trembling  lamps  sink  down  and  die, 
Touch  us  with  chastening  hand,  and  make  us  feel  thee  nigh. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

THE   PROPHETS. 

There  is  not  in  Scripture  a  precise  account  of  the  prophets 
and  the  schools  of  the  prophets,  but  many  circumstances 
are  mentioned  respecting  them.  The  prophets  were  not  a 
regularly  constituted  order  or  succession  of  men,  but  were 
raised  up  as  God  saw  fit,  to  perform  sacred  and  important 
duties.  The  gift  of  prophecy  was  not  confined  to  the  tribe 
of  Levi ;  there  were  prophets  from  all  the  tribes,  and  even 
sometimes  among  the  Gentiles,  as  Balaam,  Num.  xxii,  5 ; 
though,  when  evil  men  were  employed  as  prophets,  it  was 
only  for  a  limited  time,  and  with  reference  to  some  particu- 
lar message.  At  first,  the  prophets  were  called  seers, 
(1  Sam.  ix,  9  ;  2  Sam.  xv,  27,)  from  the  discoveries  made 
to  them  of  things  to  come.  They  declared  the  will  of  God, 
and  delivered  the  Divine  messages  committed  to  them,  both 


264 


JEWISH  NATION. 


A  SCHOOL  OF  THE  PROPHETS. 


to  kings  and  people,  with  a  freedom  which  showed  that  the3r 
knew  they  were  the  authorized  messengers  of  Jehovah. 
But  their  office  did  not  relate  to  future  events  only ;  it  was 
their  duty  to  instruct  the  people,  and  interpret  the  law  or 
word  of  God,  Neh.  viii,  8.  In  many  texts  prophet  means 
interpreter  or  teacher,  and  prophecy  means  interpretation 
or  teaching.  The  solemn  warnings  in  Ezek.  xxxiii,  show 
that  the  prophets  were  preachers  in  the  general  acceptation 
of  the  term,  and  especially  to  warn  persons  of  the  evil  of 
sin.  The  words  of  the  prophets  also  confirmed  the  Mosaic 
ritual,  and  thus  drew  a  wide  distinction,  in  practice  as  well 
as  in  doctrine,  between  the  Hebrews  and  the  surrounding 
idolaters.  Even  to  the  Gentiles,  the  Mosaic  ritual  and  the 
prophecies  were  mutual  confirmations  of  each  other,  or  rather 
the  regular  observance  of  the  first  strengthened  the  latter  in 
their  views ;  both  led  to  the  crucified  Saviour,  who  was 
given  for  a  covenant  of  the  people,  (the  Jews,)  and  a  light 
of  the  Gentiles,  Isa.  xlii,  6. 

There  were  many  prophets  or  seers  whose  names  are  not 
noticed  in  Scripture  ;  and  some  are  mentioned  none  of  whose 


RITES   AND   WORSHIP.  265 

prophecies  are  recorded.  Both  Jews  and  Christians  agree 
that  Maiachi  was  the  last  of  the  prophets  under  the  Old 
Testament  dispensation;  and  it  has  been  observed  that, 
while  there  were  prophets  among  them,  the  Jews  were  not 
divided  by  sects  or  heresies.  The  prophets  being  divinely- 
inspired,  the  people  had  to  receive  their  declarations,  or 
were  conscious  that  they  rejected  the  word  and  authority 
of  Jehovah,  and  when  they  did  so  they  fell  into  idolatry. 
But  when  the  law  of  God  was  interpreted  by  uninspired 
men,  liable  to  error,  and  often  disagreeing  in  their  opinions, 
differences  and  disputes  were  the  natural  consequence ;  then 
divisions  and  parties  followed. 

The  schools  of  the  prophets  are  supposed  to  have  arisen 
about  the  time  of  Eli ;  and  probably  were  instituted  to  in- 
struct persons  for  the  sacred  ministry,  in  consequence  of  the 
degraded  and  wicked  state  into  which  the  priesthood  had 
then  fallen,  as  is  exemphfied  in  the  account  of  the  conduct 
of  EU's  sons,  1  Sam.  xi,  12-17,  22.  The  Levite  engaged 
by  Micah,  (Judg.  xvii,  10,  11,)  who  could  unite  the  worship 
of  a  graven  image  and  a  molten  image  with  the  service  of 
Jehovah,  probably  was  but  one  among  many  who  then 
sought  the  priest's  office  for  the  sake  of  a  livelihood.  The 
disciples,  or  young  persons  taught  in  these  schools,  were 
called  sons  of  the  prophets.  Some  venerable,  divinely  in- 
spired prophet  presided,  who  was  called  their  father,  and 
the  younger  disciples  ministered  to  him.  Samuel,  (1  Sam. 
xix,  20,)  Elijah,  and  Elisha  were  among  these  fathers.  The 
sons  of  the  prophets  lived  together  as  a  community,  and 
subsisted  on  the  labor  of  their  hands,  assisted  by  the  con- 
tributions of  those  who  knew  the  value  of  these  institutions, 
and  were  able  to  help  in  supporting  them.  In  2  Kings 
iv,  l-V,  and  vi,  1-7,  are  some  interesting  particulars  respect- 
ing these  communities,  which  evidently  were,  both  in  spirit 
and  in  practice,  widely  different  from  the  monastic  institu- 
tions of  the  Church  of  Rome.  The  instruction  in  these 
schools  was  the  study  of  the  Divine  law,  and  the  principles 
of  their  faith ;  also  psalmody,  and  lecturing  or  preaching. 
And  in  these  services,  doubtless,  the  sons  of  the  prophets, 
and  their  superintendents,  were  much  employed ;  for  people 
resorted  to  them  at  st^ed  .seasons,  2  Kings  iv,  23.  Singing 
the  praises  of  God  is  also  called  prophesying,  1  Chron. 
XXV,  1 ;  1  Sam.  x,  5,  10.  Thus  the  sons  of  the  prophets 
12 


266  JEWISH  NATION. 

were  prepared  for  scenes  of  active  usefulness.  From  these 
institutions  most  of  the  prophets  appear  to  have  been  called ; 
for  Amos,  who  was  a  herdsman,  speaks  of  his  call  as  un- 
common. Observe,  however,  that  the  priest  of  Bethel  did 
not  deny  the  inspiration  of  Amos,  or  his  right  to  prophesy, 
but  only  wished  to  prevent  him  from  prophesying  or  preach- 
ing at  court.  The  plain  truths  and  warnings  against  sin, 
which  fell  from  the  lips  of  this  divinely  inspired,  but  rustic 
prophet,  grated  upon  courtly  ears,  accustomed  to  smooth 
language  and  deceitful  statements,  Amos  vii,  10-15. 

A  prophet,  in  the  strictest  sense  of  the  word,  was  one  to 
whom  the  knowledge  of  secret  things  was  revealed,  that  he 
might  declare  them  to  others.  The  Jewish  writers  since 
Christ  enumerate  forty-eight  of  these  prophets,  and  seven 
prophetesses,  from  Abraham  to  Malachi.  In  this  number 
they  include  Eldad  and  Medad,  (Num.  xi,  26,)  though  there 
is  nothing  to  show  that  they  did  more  than  exhort ;  nor 
does  it  appear  that  their  gifts  differed  from  those  of  the 
other  seventy  elders.  And  they  now  omit  Daniel,  evidently 
because  he  prophesied  clearly  of  the  coming  of  the  Mes- 
siah. His  title  to  be  ranked  among  the  prophets  cannot  be 
disputed ;  and  Josephus,  who  lived  soon  after  our  Lord  was 
upon  earth,  expressly  speaks  of  Daniel  as  one  of  the  most 
eminent  of  their  prophets. 

We  do  not  find  that  any  regular  form  or  ceremony  was 
used  when  a  prophet  was  constituted,  or  sent  forth.  The 
casting  of  EHjah's  mantle  upon  Elisha,  (1  Kings  xix,  19,) 
may  be  regarded  rather  as  a  sign  than  as  a  ceremony ;  and, 
from  the  repeated  mention  of  that  mantle,  we  may  suppose 
there  was  something  peculiar  to  Elijah  in  his  dress  and  ap- 
pearance. He  is  described  (2  Kings  i,  8)  as  hairy,  or 
wearing  a  hairy  garment,  girt  with  a  girdle  of  leather  ;  the 
appearance  of  John  the  Baptist  was  similar.  Matt,  iii,  4. 
As  to  the  method  by  which  the  prophets  were  designated, 
or  marked  out  for  their  office,  we  only  read  that  "  holy  men 
of  God  spake  as  they  were  moved  by  the  Holy  Ghost ;" 
and  all  the  true  prophets  mentioned  in  Scripture  evidently 
had  the  witness  of  the  Spirit,  carrying  them  forth  to  the 
discharge  of  their  office,  and  strengthening  them  for  it. 
Their  qualifications  also  are  plainly  stated.  The  true  pro- 
phet was  a  man  of  piety.  His  mind,  when  receiving  the 
Divine  impulse,  was  in  a  well-regulated  state,  not  carried 


RITES  AND  WORSHIP.  267 

away  or  influenced  by  disorderly  passions.  Thus,  when 
Elisha's  mind  was  disturbed  by  the  sight  of  Jehoram,  the 
wicked  king  of  Israel,  he  called  for  a  minstrel,  whose  sacred 
harmony  might  compose  his  mind  before  he  sought  thq 
Lord,  2  Kings  iii,  15.  Maimonides  says,  that  the  prophets 
were  not  able  to  prophesy  just  when  they  wished  to  do  so, 
but  were  obliged  to  prepare  their  minds,  and  to  sit  down 
joyfully,  cheerfully,  and  solitarily;  seeing  that  prophecy 
dAvells  neither  amidst  melancholy  nor  amidst  apathy,  but 
amidst  joyfulness,  therefore  the  sons  of  the  prophets  used 
to  have  instruments  of  music,  and  thus  sought  after  pro- 
phecy. 

The  Divine  revelations  to  the  prophets  were  made  in 
various  ways.  1.  By  dreams  and  visions.  As  to  Jacob, 
Daniel,  and  others  :  they  are  also  alluded  to,  Joel  ii,  28. 
St.  Peter's  trance  (Acts  x,  10-16)  was  of  this  nature.  The 
term  vision  sometimes  is  applied  to  a  really  visible  and  mi- 
raculous appearance,  as  that  of  the  angel  to  Zacharias, 
Luke  i,  22  ;  and  the  same  word  is  apphed  generally  to  the 
prophecies  of  Isaiah,  Nahum,  and  Obadiah.  The  prophets 
were  able  to  distinguish  these  visions  from  common  dreams, 
and  from  the  delusions  of  Satan :  see  1  Sam.  xvi,  6,  1  ; 
2  Sam.  vii,  4-17 ;  1  Chron.  xvii,  3-15  ;  Isa.  xxx\Tii,  1,  4--8  ; 
2  Kings  XX,  1,  4-11.  These  visions  would  always  be  con- 
sistent with  the  wisdom,  holiness,  and  majesty  of  God. 

The  expressions  used  by  the  prophets,  often  imply  that 
they  saw  the  events  they  describe,  as  though  they  were 
actually  occurring  before  them.  Thus,  Nahum  sees  the 
overthrow  of  Nineveh,  Nah.  iii,  1-3.  Isaiah  sees  the  re- 
velings,  the  sudden  surprise  and  massacre  of  the  Baby- 
lonians, and  the  fall  of  her  monarch,  Isa.  xxi,  1-10 ;  xiv,  4-23. 
Habakkuk  beheld  in  vision  a  most  glorious  display  of  Divine 
power,  shown  both  in  magnificent  and  in  minute  circum- 
stances,— the  mountains  trembling,  the  nations  scattered, 
and  even  the  tents  of  the  wild  Arabs  agitated  and  hastily 
removed,  as  is  common  at  the  approach  of  some  mighty 
conqueror ;  see  Hab.  iii.  His  prophecy  is  entitled,  "  The 
burden  which  Habakkuk  the  prophet  did  see,"  i,  1. 

It  may  be  remarked,  that  these  ecstatic  visions  seem  to 
have  represented  at  once  events  both  near  and  remote, 
with  a  general  idea  of  succession  only,  not  a  precise  view 
as  to  the  intervals  to  occur  between  them.     Thus  we  behold 


268  JEWISH  NATION. 

the  stars  in  the  firmament,  all  apparently  at  distances  nearly 
equal  from  us,  as  seen  by  the  eye.  Thus  we  see  the  towers 
and  spires  of  a  distant  city  rise  from  the  horizon  at  once  to 
view,  without  being  able  clearly  to  discern  their  intervals 
from  each  other.  This  may  explain  why  the  prophets  often 
speak  of  future  events  as  present ;  and  of  those  which  were 
fulfilled  shortly  after  the  times  when  they  prophesied,  as 
though  connected  with  events  which  we  consider  as  yet  un- 
fulfilled. 

Maimonides  states,  that  belief  in  prophecy  precedes  behef 
in  the  law,  and  describes  the  mode  of  revelation  to  the  pro- 
phets :  "  As  in  wisdom  one  wise  man  may  be  greater  than 
another,  so  in  prophecy  one  prophet  may  be  greater  than 
another  prophet.  All  of  them  see,  however,  the  apparition 
of  prophecy  in  a  dream  only,  in  a  vision  of  the  night,  or  on 
some  day  when  deep  sleep  falls  upon  them,  Nimi.  xii,  6. 
Moreover,  the  limbs  of  all  of  them  shake  at  the  time  when 
they  are  prophesying,  their  bodily  power  fails,  and  their 
mind,  undisturbed  by  any  other  impression,  is  left  to  con- 
ceive that  which  it  sees,  as  is  declared  of  Abraham,  Gen. 
XV,  12,  and  of  Daniel,  x.  8.  The  things  thus  revealed  are 
revealed  to  them  by  way  of  allegory  ;  but  the  interpretation 
is  also  at  once  impressed  upon  their  minds,  so  that  they 
know  what  it  means ;  as  the  ladder  which  Jacob  saw ;  the 
living  creatures  and  the  roll  Ezekiel  saw ;  the  almond-tree 
Jeremiah  saw ;  and  the  ephah  Zechariah  saw.  And  so  it  was 
with  the  other  prophets :  some,  like  these,  related  the  alle- 
gory, and  also  gave  the  interpretation ;  others  told  the  inter- 
pretation only,  and  sometimes  they  related  the  allegory 
only." 

The  highest  degree  of  inspiration  was  a  direct  commimi- 
cation  to  the  mind  of  a  prophet;  this  the  Jewish  writers 
would  restrict  to  Moses,  to  whom  the  Lord  spoke  face  to 
face,  Exod.  xxxiii,  11.  They  considered,  and  still  consider, 
him  as  the  greatest  prophet  ever  yet  raised  up  in  the  world. 
The  confession  of  faith  used  in  the  latter  ages  of  their  state 
declares,  "  that  all  the  prophecies  of  Moses,  our  master,  are 
true ;  and  that  he  is  the  father  of  all  the  sages,  whether 
they  went  before  or  after  him."  And  the  Jews  expect  that 
the  Messiah  will  be  a  prophet  "  hke  unto  Moses,"  consider- 
ing him  as  the  triumphant  deliverer  of  his  people.  Upon 
this  part  of  the  character  of  their  lawgiver  they  dwell,  even 


RITES   AND   WORSHIP.  269 

as  Stephen,  Acts  vii,  37,  referred  to  the  same  passage, 
Deut,  xviii,  15,  but  enlarged  upon  that  part  of  his  history 
which  represents  him  as  suffering  for  his  people.  There 
appears  no  cause  for  this  limitation  to  Moses.  A  direct 
communication  also  appears  to  have  been  sometimes  made 
by  a  voice  to  other  prophets,  as  to  Samuel.  The  ministry 
of  angels  has  already  been  mentioned.  At  times  a  prophet 
could  not  refrain  from  delivering  his  message,  even  when  it 
seemed  disadvantageous  to  declare  it,  see  Jer.  xx,  7-10  ; 
but  it  is  probable,  that  usually,  when  charged  with  a  Divine 
communication,  he  was  directed  or  led  to  select  the  oppor- 
tunities most  suitable  for  the  purposes  in  view. 

A  prophet,  when  called  to  stand  forth  among  his  <l'y^- 
trymen,  to  reprove  sin,  to  warn  Gf  judgments  to"  come,  and 
to  set  forth  the  Divine  promises,  was  about  to  enter  upon 
a  course  both  difficult  and  dangerous.  The  history  of  Jere- 
miah fully  shows  this;  and  few  have  read  unmoved  the 
minute  and  graphic  description  of  his  sufferings  in  the  dun- 
geon, Jer.  xxxviii.  But  the  Divine  protection  was  pro- 
mised, and  if  wicked  men  were  suffered  to  prevail,  a  better 
recompense  awaited  the  prophet  than  any  earthly  advan- 
tage. He  had  to  manifest,  in  his  life  and  conversation,  that 
he  dedicated  himself  wholly  to  his  office.  His  apparel  was 
simple,  and  his  food  coarse.  Isaiah  wore  sackcloth,  Isa. 
XX,  2.  Elijah  was  clothed  in  skins,  2  Kings  i,  8.  So  usually 
was  this  the  garb  of  the  prophets,  that  it  was  assumed  by 
the  false  prophets  after  the  captivity,  in  order  to  deceive, 
Zech.  xiii,  4  ;  a  rough  garment,  or  garment  of  hair,  either 
of  skins  or  hair-cloth.  The  appearance  of  Elijah  probably 
occasioned  the  scoffs  and  mockery  of  the  young  men  of 
Jericho,  2  Kings  ii,  23,  24.  By  this  plain  and  self-denying 
course  of  life  their  disinterestedness  was  manifested,  as  in 
the  instance  of  Elisha  and  Naaman,  2  Kings  v,  16. 

From  many  circumstances  it  is  plain,  that  the  prophets 
often  possessed  the  respect  and  regard  of  persons  of  the  first 
rank  in  the  state.  Elijah  and  Elisha  commanded  this  even 
from  the  wicked  kings  of  Israel,  1  Kings  xviii,  1 7  ;  2  Kings 
iii,  14.  Isaiah  had  extensive  influence  with  the  good  king 
of  Judah,  Hezekiah,  Isa.  xxxvii,  2.  Nor  did  he  hesitate 
boldly  to  deliver  his  message,  even  when  the  rulers  of  the 
land  were  men  of  a  different  stamp.  The  reproof  to  Shebna 
(Isa.  xxii,  15-25)  is  supposed  to  have  been  delivered  pub- 


270  JEWISH  NATION. 

licly  to  him,  when  one  of  the  idolatrous  ministers  of  Ma- 
nasseh ;  and  at  a  time  when  probably  he  was  superintending 
the  erection  of  some  stately  monument,  thinking  thereby  to 
perpetuate  his  memory.  Some  consider  that  this  solemn 
personal  warning  was  so  resented  by  the  wicked  ruler,  that 
he  caused  the  prophet  to  be  put  to  a  cruel  death,  by  being 
sawn  in  sunder  by  a  wooden  saw,  which  is  the  Jewish  tra- 
dition respecting  the  martyrdom  of  Isaiah.  But  the  most 
remarkable  instance  of  political  power  and  influence  enjoyed 
by  a  prophet,  is  that  of  Daniel.  The  fearlessness  with  which 
he  risked  his  life,  rather  than  cease  from  the  worship  of  God, 
at  a  time  when  he  enjoyed  the  highest  honors  of  the  realm, 
shows  the  excellent  spirit  he  was  of;  see  Dan.  vi.  The  con- 
duct of  the  princes  lO  Jeremiah,  (chap,  xxxvi,  19,)  proves 
the  respect  and  r'egard  manifested  to  him,  even  by  the 
courtiers  of  Jehoiakim.  That  chapter  also  shows,  that  the 
messages  or  discourses  of  the  prophets  sometimes  were  de- 
livered publicly  in  the  temple,  ver.  5-8.  Many  passages 
confirm  these  statements,  and  the  reverence  required  to- 
wards the  prophets  and  their  messages,  2  Chron.  xx,  20, 
and  xxxvi,  16  ;  proving  that  the  neglect  and  ill-treatment 
many  among  them  experienced,  added  much  to  the  national 
guUt.  Their  words  were  often  confirmed  by  the  exhibition 
of  miracles,  as  in  the  case  of  Moses ;  and  at  other  times  by 
judgments,  immediate  or  shortly  to  come  to  pass,  as  in  the 
instances  of  Jeroboam,  whose  hand  withered,  1  Kings  xiii,  4, 
the  captains  sent  to  take  Elijah,  2  Kings  i,  10,  12 ;  and  the 
death  of  Hananiah,  Jer.  xxviii,  17. 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  271 

PART  III. 

THE  LAWS  AND  POLITY  OF  THE  JEWS. 


INTRODUCTION. 

The  attentive  reader  of  the  historical  books  of  the  Bible 
must  perceive  that  they  differ  widely  from  the  common  his- 
tories of  nations.  They  not  only  record  the  events  which 
befell  the  Jews,  with  a  minuteness  and  fidelity  very  differ- 
ent from  the  early  records  of  other  nations,  but  they  give 
details  and  particulars,  which  unfold  the  springs  and  sources 
of  their  actions,  and  show  the  results  of  their  proceedings 
on  succeeding  generations,  so  as  to  furnish  the  most  excel- 
lent moral  and  religious  instructions.  The  principles  upon 
which  the  laws  and  polity  of  the  Jews  were  founded,  are 
fully  developed  in  the  Bible ;  they  are  therefore  written  for 
our  instruction,  and  should  be  fully  considered  in  connec- 
tion with  their  history.  From  thence  we  may  learn  how 
fully  this  policy  was  calculated  to  promote  their  national 
happiness,  and  how  clearly  it  appears  that  their  national 
sufferings  were  the  result  of  their  departure  from  the  laws 
which  God  had  given  them.  It  is  by  thus  taking  a  view 
of  the  polity,  in  connection  with  the  history  of  the  Jews, 
that  the  sacred  narrative  presents  the  most  impressive  les- 
sons. Their  covenant  with  the  Lord,  as  a  people,  was  really 
the  foundation  of  their  national  power  and  strength,  which 
were  only  preserved  and  continued  to  them  whilst  they  ad- 
hered to  that  covenant.  It  was  in  this  view  that  the  Psalm- 
ist exclaimed,  "  Happy  is  that  people  whose  God  is  Jeho- 
vah!" Psa.  cxliv,  15;  and  that  the  prophet,  anticipating 
the  calamities  about  to  fall  upon  the  nation,  showed  the  evU 
effects  of  disobedience,  Jer.  ii,  19. 

"  Know,  therefore,  and  see 
That  it  is  an  evil  and  bitter  thing 
That  thou  hast  forsaken  Jehovah  thy  God, 
And  that  my  fear  is  not  in  thee,  saith  the  Lord  God  of  hosts." 


272  JEWISH  NATION. 

It  must  also  be  remembered,  that  this  national  covenant  was 
closely  connected  with  the  still  more  comprehensive  cove- 
nant made  by  the  Lord  our  God  with  the  lost  children  of 
men,  of  every  kindred,  tongue,  and  people,  for  their  salva- 
tion. The  national  covenant  with  the  Jews  had  direct  refer- 
ence to  the  redemption  which  is  in  Christ  Jesus  ;  the  love 
of  God  for  his  chosen  nation  was  a  type  of  his  love  for  his 
children  of  every  country.  The  Jewish  poHty  shadows 
forth  the  rich  designs  of  saving  grace ;  the  Jewish  history 
proves  how  fully  and  freely  this  grace  was  imparted  by  Him 
who  is  "rich  in  mercy,*'  Eph.  ii,  4.  Here  then  we  see  at 
once  our  danger  and  the  remedy.  Let  us  enter  upon  the 
consideration  of  the  Jewish  polity  with  a  view  to  our  own 
improvement.  Let  individuals,  families,  and  nations,  re- 
member that  Jehovah  changeth  not ;  that  the  principles  of 
his  government  are  ever  the  same ;  that  the  Bible  alone  con- 
tains his  revealed  will,  and  that  it  is  in  vain  for  any,  whether 
the  largest  community  or  the  humblest  individual,  to  think 
that  they  can  sin  against  God,  and  yet  prosper ;  that  they 
can  reject  the  principles  of  his  law,  and  yet  escape  the  pun- 
ishment deserved  by  disobedience :  and  also  that  God  the 
Lord  will  not  forsake  those  who  obey  his  word,  for  he  is 
"a  just  God  and  a  Saviour,"  Isa.  xlv,  21. 

We  must  ever  remember  that  Moses  was  not  the  author 
of  the  laws  and  polity  of  the  Jews ;  he  did  not  frame  them 
from  his  OAvn  devisings,  or  borrow  them  from  other  coun- 
tries. There  doubtless  is  much  similarity  between  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  Jews,  and  those  of  Gentile 
inhabitants  of  the  East ;  but  the  laws  and  institutions  of  the 
Jewish  nation  were  evidently  based  upon  something  far 
superior  to  those  of  other  lands.  As  Moses  declared, 
"These  words"  (of  the  ten  commandments)  "the  Lord 
spake  unto  your  assembly  in  the  mount."  The  details 
were,  by  the  desire  of  the  people,  thus  spoken  unto  Moses, 
and  repeated  by  him  to  them :  see  the  whole  passage,  Deut. 
V,  22-33.  The  Hebrew  nation  were  placed  in  the  centre 
of  the  civilized  world,  then  a  world  of  idolaters,  to  exemplify 
the  great  doctrine  of  one  God,  as  the  Creator  of  all  things, 
and  the  Governor  of  the  universe,  as  opposed  to  the  idolatry 
and  worship  of  many  gods  which  then  prevailed,  Deut.  vi, 
13,  14.  Some  few  of  the  most  enlightened  men  in  other 
lands  had  partial  ideas  of  this  truth,  derived  either  from  the 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  273 

Jews  themselves,  or  more  remotely  from  the  patriarchs. 
As  a  proof  of  the  Divine  origin  of  this  principle,  the  Jews 
were  to  prosper  more  than  any  other  nation,  as  long  as  they 
were  obedient ;  and  they  did  so.  This  principle  was  not 
exemplified  in  the  same  manner  by  any  other  people.  The 
Rites  and  Worship  of  the  Jews  were  especially  instituted 
for  them  as  a  nation,  as  has  been  previously  shown,  while 
the  purity  taught  in  all  their  laws  and  observances  plainly 
pointed  out  Him,  who  has  enforced  his  laws  by  the  decla- 
ration, "  Ye  shall  be  holy,  for  I  the  Lord  your  God  am 
holy,"  Lev.  xix,  2.  How  different  was  their  case  from  that 
of  every  heathen  nation,  which  possessed,  in  all  the  histories 
of  their  gods,  a  record  of  criminal  actions,  that  encouraged 
and  allowed  sin ! 


CHAPTER  I. 
GENERAL  CHARACTER  OF  THE  JEWISH  LAWS. 

When  considering  the  details  of  the  Jewish  law,  as  given 
to  Moses  from  on  high,  and  taught  by  him,  we  should  mark 
for  our  own  guidance  at  the  present  day,  the  principles  more 
than  the  details.  The  principles  are  of  universal  applica- 
tion, as  they  proceed  from  the  mind  of  Him  who  changeth 
not,  but  the  details  are  not  so  to  be  viewed.  They  were  ad- 
mirably adapted  to  promote  the  welfare  and  happiness  of 
the  Jewish  nation,  a  people  of  whom  God  himself  declared, 
"  I  the  Lord  dwell  among  the  children  of  Israel,"  Num. 
XXXV,  34  ;  and  who  were  separated  from  the  nations, 
(1  Kings  viii,  53,)  not  only  as  a  special  favor  to  them,  but 
as  a  type  of  the  spiritual  Israel,  the  people  of  God,  who  in 
later  ages  should  be  called  from  all  nations.  Also,  as  God 
works  by  means,  many  of  the  details  had  special  reference 
to  the  state  of  Israel,  as  liable  to  be  corrupted  by  the  na- 
tions around,  and  thei'efore  severed  from  other  people.  Lev. 
XX,  26.  Others  are  grounded  upon  various  circumstances 
of  the  climate  or  situation,  therefore  not  adapted  or  intended 
for  adoption  universally.  But  while  it  is  lawful  to  adopt 
or  decline  the  matters  of  detail,  the  principles  which  regu- 
lated Moses  while  king  in  Jeshurun,  (Deut.  xxxiii,  5,)  issu- 
12* 


274  JEWISH  NATION. 

ing  his  commands  from  the  tabernacle  in  the  wilderness ; 
or  Solomon,  when  all  Israel  were  dwelling  in  peace  and 
safety,  every  man  under  his  own  vine  and  fig-tree,  (1  Kings 
iv,  25,)  are  of  universal  application :  these  should  guide  the 
monarchs,  rulers,  and  legislators  of  every  land  in  the  pre- 
sent day.  The  details  commanded  by  Moses  were  all  in 
perfect  accordance  with  the  principles^  Miserable  work  did 
the  Jewish  doctors  and  rulers  make  in  later  days,  when 
they  carried  on  the  details  without  having  reference,  in  the 
first  instance,  to  the  main  principle,  which  our  blessed  Lord 
himself  declared  to  those  rulers  was  "  mercy,  and  not  sacri- 
fice," Matt,  xii,  7.  Very  striking  instances  of  this  occur  in 
considering  the  Mishna  and  oral  law,  of  which  our  Saviour 
spoke  when  he  said,  "  Ye  have  made  the  Law"  (the  prin- 
ciples emanating  from  the  Godhead)  "  of  none  effect  by 
your  traditions,"  (by  your  enactments  in  opposition  to  those 
principles,)  Matt,  xv,  6.  This,  be  it  observed,  is  the  natural 
tendency  of  the  human  heart.  The  strict,  sanctimonious 
Pharisees,  and  the  Hbertine  Sadducees,  have  not  been  the 
only  teachers  and  rulers  pretending  to  have  special  reve- 
rence for  the  word  of  God,  while  departing  widely  from  the 
principles  it  sets  forth.  The  pontiffs  of  Rome,  though  pre- 
tending to  claim  only  spiritual  guidance,  brought  in  a  domi- 
nation, a  tyranny  over  both  the  souls  and  bodies  of  men, 
impossible  to  be  borne.  Tendencies  to  similar  interference 
with  the  happiness  and  the  consciences  of  men  have  appeared 
even  in  the  proceedings  of  purer  Churches,  and  less  selfish 
leaders.  It  is  to  be  remarked,  that  every  spiritual  domina- 
tion has  departed  more  or  less,  in  its  details,  from  the  clear 
principles  of  the  Divine  law.  "  Glory  to  God  in  the  highest, 
and  on  earth  peace,  good- will  towards  men,"  Luke  ii,  14. 
These  seldom,  or  for  any  long  time,  have  really  actuated 
any  ruhng  power ;  but  a  time  will  come  when  these  princi- 
ples shall  be  universally  carried  out,  when  One  greater  and 
wiser  than  Solomon  shall  reign,  of  whom  it  has  been  de- 
clared, (Psalm  Ixxii,  17,) 

"  Men  shall  be  blessed  in  Him  ; 
All  nations  shall  call  Him  blessed." 

Well  might  the  sweet  Psalmist  of  Israel,  the  king  over 
the  Jewish  nation,  return  from  the  sheep-folds  to  feed 
Jacob  his  people,  and  Israel  his  inheritance,  while  anticipat- 


LAWS   AND   POLITY.  275 

ing  this  glorious  carrying  out  of  the  Divine  principles  of 
legislation  into  the  details  of  human  laws,  say, 

"  Blessed  be  the  Lord  God,  the  God  of  Israel, 
Who  only  doeth  wondrous  things  ; 
And  blessed  be  His  glorious  name  forever: 
And  let  the  whole  earth  be  filled  with  His  glory.    Amen  and  Amen." 

and  then  close  with  the  emphatic  declaration, — 

"  The  prayers  of  David,  the  son  of  Jesse,  are  ended." 

Psa.  Ixxii,  18-20. 

The  judicial  laws  of  the  Jews  may  be  considered  as  those 
referring — first,  to  their  polity  or  government,  which  dif- 
fered in  different  periods  of  the  Jewish  history,  and  will  be 
hereafter  considered  under  the  title  of  Polity.  The  second 
division  relates  to  the  laws,  both  civil  and  criminal,  by 
means  of  which  justice  was  to  be  administered,  and  punish- 
ment inflicted.  On  these  a  few  remarks  will  next  be  made.* 

In  order  the  more  clearly  to  point  out  the  difference  be- 
tween Moses  and  other  lawgivers,  some  laws  as  to  out- 
ward conduct  may  first  be  noticed,  observing  that  it  must 
be  kept  in  mind  that  all  these  laws  proceed  from  a  Lawgiver 
who  was  able  to  search  and  judge  the  heart  of  man.  As 
already  observed,  they  are  all  based  upon,  and  reducible  to 
the  golden  precept,  "  Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as  thy- 
self"— or,  in  plain  words,  "Do  unto  others  as  you  would 
they  should  do  unto  you,"  a  principle  which  never  has  been 
adopted  by  mere  human  lawgivers.  While  the  Jews  were 
subject  to  these  laws,  the  heathen  nations  around  them 
were  under  very  different  codes.  In  one  of  the  most  virtu- 
ous of  these,  namely,  that  of  Sparta,  theft  was  allowed ;  it 
was  not  a  crime  to  steal,  but  to  do  it  so  as  to  be  detected. 
In  others,  piracy  was  honored  ;  licentiousness  and  unnatural 
crimes  were  sanctioned  ;  revenge  was  counted  praiseworthy, 
though  in  the  eye  of  a  heart-searching  God  it  was  murder. 
In  many  cases  parents  and  masters  were  allowed  to  kill 
their  children  and  slaves  with  impunity,  to  say  nothing  of 
the  public  murders  sanctioned  by  the  permission  of  human 
sacrifices. 

Graves  well  remarks,  how  clearly  the  importance  of  Re- 
velation is  shown  by  the  turpitude  and  cruelty  of  the  sys- 
tem of  pubhc  morals  recommended  by  Plato,  one  of  the 

*  Considerable  use  has  been  made  of  the  valuable  work  by  Dean  Graves, 
"  On  the  Pentateuch,  showing  the  Divine  Origin  of  the  Jewish  Religion,  chiefly 
from  Internal  Evidence." 


276  JEWISH  NATION. 

greatest  of  the  ancient  philosophers,  in  his  ideal  scheme  of 
perfection  for  a  state,  even  for  what  he  considered  a  perfect 
republic.  Some  infidels  have  endeavored  to  make  out  that 
Judaism  was  derived  from  heathenism  ;  but  the  moral  law  of 
the  Jews  sufficiently  proves  that  it  had  a  far  superior  ori- 
gin. Artificial  light  may  be  good  in  the  absence  of  the  sun, 
but  all  the  discoveries  of  science  cannot  produce  a  light 
which  will  supply  the  place  of  the  solar  rays.  Nor  is  there 
any  perfect  code  of  morality  but  that  revealed  in  Scripture, 
enforced  by  the  example  of  Christ. 

"  Talk  they  of  morals  1    O  thou  bleeding  Lamb, 
Thou  maker  of  new  morals  to  mankind, 
The  grand  morality  is  love  to  Thee." 

How  little  have  those  examined  the  subject,  who  consider 
the  Jewish  law  as  a  mere  system  of  outward  ceremonies ! 
It  is  a  perfect  summary  of  moral  duty,  and  bears  the  image 
of  its  Author.  And  when  we  consider  the  great  purposes 
attained  by  the  keeping  Israel  a  separate  people,  we  see 
that  this  object  was  worthy  the  interposition  of  the  Deity. 
Hereby  the  people  were  prepared  for  those  great  objects 
described  in  Scripture,  especially  for  the  coming  of  the  Re- 
deemer, and  the  fulfillment  of  the  promise,  "  In  thy  seed 
shall  all  the  nations  of  the  earth  be  blessed,"  Gen.  xxvi,  4  ; 
and  here  was  a  pattern  given,  by  adherence  to  which,  in  a 
greater  or  lesser  degree,  the  happiness  of  other  nations  has 
been  more  or  less  attained. 

Obsei-ve  how  distinctly  revenge  is  forbidden,  Lev.  xix,  18 : 
"  Thou  shalt  not  avenge,  nor  bear  any  grudge  against  the 
children  of  thy  people,  but  thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor 
as  thyself :  I  am  the  Lord."  And  this  was  not  to  those  of 
their  own  nation  only,  as  the  rabbins  endeavored  to  limit  it, 
but  to  the  stranger  also,  ver.  34  :  "  The  stranger  that 
dwelleth  with  you  shall  be  unto  you  as  one  bom  among 
you,  and  thou  shalt  love  him  as  thyself,  for  ye  were  stran- 
gers in  the  land  of  Egypt.  I  am  the  Lord  your  God." 
Also  the  Divine  principle  was  extended  even  farther,  to 
**  love  your  enemies,"  Exod.  xxiii,  4,  5  :  "  If  thou  meet  thine 
enemy's  ox  or  his  ass  going  astray,  thou  shalt  surely  bring 
it  back  to  him  again.  If  thou  see  the  ass  of  him  that  hateth 
thee  lying  under  his  burden,  and  wouldest  forbear  to  help 
him,  thou  shalt  surely  help  with  him."  Here  observe  the 
agreement  between  the  Law  and  the  Gospel,  Matt,  v,  43-48. 


LAWS   AND   POLITY.  277 

No  private  enmity  was  to  interrupt  those  good  offices 
which  were  due  to  other  members  of  the  same  community. 
Also,  it  must  be  remembered,  that  the  enactments  of  the 
ceremonial  law  kept  the  Jew  at  a  distance  from  hea- 
thens ;  still  there  were  occasions  when,  in  the  way  of  duty, 
he  had  intercourse  with  them,  and  then  these  precepts  were 
binding  on  him ;  while,  since  the  promulgation  of  the  gospel, 
the  application  undoubtedly  extends  to  all,  even  as  God 
hath  made  of  one  blood  all  nations  upon  the  earth.  The 
command  of  our  blessed  Lord  is  thus  widely  apphcable. 
As  Graves  says,  "  It  was  reserved  for  him,  the  expected 
Messiah,  the  God  of  love  and  mercy,  to  extend  and  enforce 
the  principle  of  benevolence;  to  teach  men  to  regard  all 
human  beings  requiring  their  aid  as  friends  and  brethren, 
however  different  their  country,  however  opposite  their 
faith  ;  to  teach  them  to  love  their  enemies,  to  return  blessing 
for  cursing,  and  good  for  evil ;  to  imitate  the  example  of 
their  Redeemer,  who  laid  down  his  life  for  his  enemies,  and 
in  the  agonies  of  death  prayed  for  his  persecutors.  Thus 
it  was  strictly  true,  that  the  commandment  of  our  Lord,  to 
*  love  one  another,  even  as  he  loved  us,'  was  new,  John 
xiii,  34.  New,  in  the  universality  of  its  application  ;  new, 
in  the  all-perfect  example  by  which  it  was  illustrated  ;  and 
new,  in  the  sanction  by  which  it  was  enforced,  and  the  pre- 
eminence which  it  obtained  in  the  scheme  of  Gospel  duties, 
where  it  is  ranked  as  the  peculiar  characteristic  of  the  fol- 
lowers of  Christ,  and  an  essential  condition  of  obtaining 
forgiveness  from  God.  But  the  principle  was  recognized  in 
the  Mosaic  law,  and  applied  as  extensively  as  existing  cir- 
cumstances would  permit."  And  the  duties  referred  to 
were  not  ceremonial  observances,  acts  of  the  hand,  with 
which  the  heart  went  not ;  but — "  These  words  shall  be  in 
thine  heart,"  Deut.  vi,  4,  5.  And  when  warned  of  the  pun- 
ishments that  would  attend  departure  from  these  laws, 
the  Jews  were  not  only  called  to  resume  the  practice  of  the 
acts  required,  but  to  humble  the  heart,  and  to  turn  to  the 
Lord  with  all  the  heart  and  soul.  See  Deut.  xxx.  To  such 
returning  only,  a  blessing  was  promised. 

The  same  may  be  observed  in  reference  to  Solomon's  in- 
tercession at  the  consecration  of  the  temple  :  though  that 
was  a  place  especially  provided  for  the  observance  of  out- 
ward rites,  yet  Solomon,  when  pleading  for  the  Divine  an- 


278  JEWISH    NATION. 

swer  to  the  repenting  Jew,  spoke  of  prayer  only :  "  Hear 
thou  in  heaven  thy  dwelUng-place,  and  forgive."  Josephus 
thus  observes :  "  When  we  offer  sacrifices,  we  do  it,  not  in 
order  to  surfeit  ourselves  and  be  drunken,  for  such  excesses 
are  against  the  will  of  God,  and  would  be  an  occasion  of 
pride  and  luxury  ;  but  by  keeping  ourselves  sober,  orderly, 
and  ready  for  our  other  occupations,  and  being  more  tem- 
perate than  others,  and  for  our  duty  at  the  sacrifices  them- 
selves. We  ought,  in  the  first  place,  to  pray  for  the  com- 
mon welfare  of  all,  and  after  that,  for  our  own  ;  for  we  are 
made  for  fellowship  one  with  another ;  and  he  who  prefers 
the  common  good  before  what  is  peculiar  to  himself,  is 
above  all  acceptable  to  God.  And  let  our  prayers  and  sup- 
phcations  be  made  humbly  to  God.  Not  so  much  that  he 
would  give  us  what  is  good,  for  he  hath  already  given  that 
of  his  own  accord,  and  hath  proposed  the  same  publicly  to 
all,  that  we  may  duly  receive  it,  and  when  we  have  received 
it,  may  preserve  it."  On  this  passage  Whiston  truly  and 
judiciously  remarks :  "  That  we  may  here  observe  how 
known  a  thing  it  was,  that  sacrifices  were  accompanied 
with  prayers, — whence  came  those  phrases,  of  the  sacrifices 
of  prayer,  of  praise,  and  of  thanksgiving." 

Philo,  another  Jew,  as  Graves  states,  "  is  full  of  the  same 
moral  and  religious  spirit  in  his  comments  on  the  signifi- 
cancy  of  the  dress  of  the  priests,  the  sacrifices,  and  all  the 
various  circumstances  of  the  ritual.  Indeed,  the  inscrip- 
tion on  the  holy  crown  of  Aaron,  of  "  Holiness  to  the  Lord," 
naturally  suggested  such  ideas  to  every  pious  and  reflect- 
ing Israelite.  Philo  has  pursued  them  certainly  often  with 
overstrained  refinement  and  fanciful  ingenuity ;  but  his 
writings  show  that  the  enlightened  Jews,  when  Christianity 
was  introduced,  (for  Philo  was  contemporary  with  the 
apostles,)  were  addicted  to  spiritual  and  moral  views  of  their 
litual  and  law.  The  spiritual  nature  of  the  law  was  further 
shown  by  the  requirements  of  the  ceremonial  institutions, 
of  a  trespass-offering  for  every  offense,  pointing  typically  to 
the  atonement  of  Christ,  independently  of  any  infliction  of 
punishment  upon  the  offender,  by  the  directions  of  the  law. 
The  offender  might  undergo  the  penalty  of  his  sin,  and  so 
satisfy  the  judicial  law,  but  that  was  only  a  part  of  the 
Hebrew  code ;  there  was  a  pardon  to  be  sought  from  Jeho- 
vah, their  just  God,  as  well  as  supreme  Ruler. 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  279 

Thus,  ''the  Jewish  law  enjoined  love  to  God  with  the 
most  unceasing  solicitude  and  love  to  our  neighbor,  as  ex- 
tensively and  forcibly  as  the  peculiar  character  of  the  Jewish 
people  would  permit.  It  impressed  the  deepest  conviction 
of  God's  requiring,  not  mere  external  observances,  but  heart- 
felt piety,  well-regulated  desires,  and  active  benevolence. 
It  taught  that  sacrifice  could  not  obtain  pardon  without  re- 
pentance, or  repentance  without  reformation  and  restitution. 
It  described  circumcision  itself,  and  by  consequence  every 
other  legal  rite,  as  designed  to  typify  and  inculcate  internal 
holiness,  which  alone  could  render  man  acceptable  to  God ; 
and  it  represented  the  love  of  God  as  a  practical  principle, 
stimulating  to  the  constant  and  sincere  cultivation  of  purity, 
mercy,  and  truth." 

The  injunctions  for  the  daily  offering  of  sacrifices  to  God 
are  given  in  Exod.  xxxix,  38-46,  and  Num.  xxviii,  1-8. 
Other  and  additional  offerings  were  made  on  the  Sabbath- 
day,  and  also  at  the  beginning  of  every  month.  These  pub- 
lic observances  were  especially  needful,  when  the  means  of 
private  instruction  were  generally  limited.  "  How  plain  and 
easy,"  says  Lowman,  "  how  grave  and  solemn,  and  even 
how  rational  and  instructive  is  this  daily  worship  of  the 
Hebrew  Church,  as  directed  by  the  Mosaic  ritual.  Thus 
God  was  honored  and  worshiped,  and  the  people  blessed 
every  day :  they  acknowledged  the  loving  kindness  of  Jeho- 
vah in  the  morning,  and  his  faithfulness  in  the  evening ;  and 
they  hoped  for  their  safety  and  happiness  every  day  of  their 
lives  in  the  protection  and  blessing  of  Jehovah,  who  dwelt 
among  them  as  their  God."  And  there  is  a  promise  refer- 
ring to  the  gospel  day,  Mai.  i,  11  : — • 

"  For  from  the  rising  of  the  sun,  even  unto  the  going  down  of  the  same, 
My  name  shall  be  great  among  the  Gentiles  ; 
And  in  every  place  incense  shall  be  offered  unto  my  name, 
And  a  pure  offering : 
For  my  name  shall  be  great  among  the  heathen,  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts." 


280  JEWISH  NATION. 

CHAPTER  II. 

THE  PRINCIPLES  OF  THE  JUDICIAL  LAW. 

The  judicial  law,  in  its  relative  effect  upon  the  community, 
aflfords  full  proof  that  it  was  worthy  of  its  Divine  Author, 
and  calculated  to  promote  the  temporal  as  well  as  the 
eternal  welfare  of  the  people.  The  chief  crime  forbidden 
in  it  was  idolatry.  This  was  punished  by  death,  and  was 
treated  as  a  treasonable  offense,  and  it  will  be  noticed  under 
the  first  commandment. 

The  next  class  of  offenses  that  will  be  noticed  here  are 
those  against  the  sixth  commandment, — murder  or  homicide. 
According  to  the  early  practice  of  men,  the  punishment  of 
murder  was  usually  left  to  the  relatives  of  the  deceased, 
who  proceeded  upon  the  impulse  of  the  moment,  and  sought 
to  shed  blood  for  blood,  without  reference  to  the  degree  of 
malignity,  or  due  inquiry  whether  it  was  an  accidental  or  de- 
liberate act.  This  provoked  retaliation ;  and,  among  the  hea- 
thens, we  find  deadly  feuds  perpetrated,  as  in  fact  they  were 
even  until  recent  times.  Here  the  law  discriminated  aright. 
Foll6wing  up  the  patriarchal  code,  "  Whoso  sheddeth  man's 
blood,  by  man  shall  his  blood  be  shed  ;"  it  declared,  "  If  a 
man  come  presumptuously  upon  his  neighbor  to  slay  him 
with  guile,  thou  shalt  take  him  from  mine  altar  that  he  may 
die."  Exod.  xxi,  14.  But  examinations  were  made,  as  to 
whether  there  had  been  malice  between  the  parties.  See 
Num.  xxxv.  By  that  remarkable  institution  of  the  cities 
of  refuge,  which  were  typical  of  Christ,  our  sure  refuge,  and 
also  were  directed  to  accomplish  an  important  object  of  le- 
gislation, by  providing  for  the  due  trial  of  the  manslayer — 
the  murderer  was  not  protected.  Here  was  a  wide  differ- 
ence from  the  sanctuaries  of  the  heathens,  and  of  papal 
Rome.  No  ideal  sanctity  was  attributed  to  the  plaq^,  to 
delay  or  impede  justice,  and  afford  facility  for  atrocious 
crime ;  but  due  inquiry  was  secured,  and  the  murderer  was 
executed,  while  the  inadvertent  homicide  was  kept  there 
under  protection, 

Montesquieu  observes,  "  These  laws  of  Moses  were  per- 
fectly wise.     The  man  who  involuntarily  killed  another  was 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  281 

innocent,  but  he  was  obliged  to  be  taken  away  from  before 
the  eyes  of  the  relatives  of  the  deceased ;  Moses,  therefore, 
appointed  an  asylum  for  such  unfortunate  persons.  Great 
criminals  deserved  not  a  place  of  safety,  and  they  had  none. 
The  criminals  who  would  resort  to  the  temple  from  all  parts 
might  disturb  the  Divine  service.  If  persons  who  had  com- 
mitted manslaughter  had  been  driven  out  of  the  country,  as 
was  customary  among  the  Greeks,  there  was  reason  to  fear 
they  would  worship  strange  gods.  All  these  considerations 
made  them  establish  cities  of  refuge,  where  they  might 
remain  until  the  death  of  the  high  priest."  These  cities 
were  six  in  number.  Josh,  xx,  8  :  Kedesh,  Shechem,  and 
Hebron,  on  the  one  side  of  Jordan,  and  Bezer,  Rameth,  and 
Golan,  on  the  other ;  so  that  one  of  them  might  be  easily 
reached  from  any  part  of  the  land.  The  roads  to  them 
were  always  kept  in  good  repair,  bridges  were  provided, 
and  way-marks  prevented  the  traveler  from  mistaking  his 
course. 

Not  only  the  life  of  man  was  thus  carefully  protected,  but 
humanity  towards  animals  was  enjoined,  and  the  eating  of 
blood  was  expressly  forbidden,  even  to  the  eager  hunter 
after  wild  animals.  See  Levit.  xvii,  13,  14.  This  tended 
to  keep  up  a  reverence  for  the  sacrifices  that  typified  the 
precious  blood  of  Christ,  which  cleanseth  from  all  sin. 

Inquiries  which  did  not  ajffect  life  were  treated  with  more 
mercy  than  they  are  in  many  modern  codes.  Damages  to 
compensate,  or  retaliation  to  punish,  were  the  expedients. 
The  latter  law  was  enacted  for  purposes  of  mercy,  though 
the  Jews  in  later  times  perverted  that  intent.  It  never  was 
designed  for  individuals  to  retaliate  on  their  own  account ; 
and  our  Saviour,  when  on  earth,  censured  this  application, 
showing  how  contrary  it  was  to  the  duties  of  forbearance 
and  forgiveness,  Matt,  v,  38. 

Impurity  of  every  kind  was  to  be  punished  with  death. 
Here  was  a  wide  difference  from  the  laws  of  the  heathens, 
who  treated  such  offenses  as  venial,  or  of  no  importance. 
The  Jewish  law  strictly  maintained  conjugal  and  domestic 
happiness.  Graves  well  says,  "  A  system  so  favorable  to 
the  interests  of  virtue,  and  restraining  so  powerfully,  and  yet 
so  judiciously,  the  excesses  of  passion  ;  a  system  introduced 
at  that  early  period,  in  an  Eastern  climate,  and  amongst  a 
people  accustomed  to  be  irresistibly  led  by  objects  of  sense. 


282  JEWISH   NATION. 

had  a  higher  origin  than  mere  human  wisdom ;  and  to  secure 
submission  to  its  restraints,  required  an  interference  more 
powerful  than  mere  human  authority." 

Presumptuous  disobedience,  whether  against  the  magis- 
trate or  the  parent,  (Deut.  xvii,  12,)  was  punished  with 
death :  it  was  treason  under  the  Mosaic  system.  As  to  dis- 
obedience towards  parents,  the  laws  of  the  heathens  gave 
fathers  arbitrary  power  over  their  children  ;  they  might  put 
them  to  death,  or  sell  them  for  slaves,  with  or  without  rea- 
son, at  their  own  will.  Not  so  the  provisions  of  the  Jewish 
law :  cause  must  be  shown,  and  the  death,  if  deserved,  was 
to  be  solemnly  and  legally  inflicted,  Deut.  xxi,  18-21. 
There  is,  indeed,  no  record  that  any  such  case  actually  oc- 
curred. Possibly  the  dread  of  the  punishment  might  have 
proved  a  sufficient  restraint. 

Offenses  against  the  property  of  others  were  forbidden 
by  the  eighth  commandment.  Here  the  Mosaic  law  was  far 
milder  than  those  of  ancient,  or  modern  lawgivers.  No 
injury  against  property  was  punished  by  the  death  of  the 
offender.  Surely  the  Jewish  law  adjusted  its  punish- 
ments more  suitably  to  the  real  degree  of  depravity  than 
some  modern  codes,  which  permit  atrocious  instances  of 
moral  guilt  to  pass  with  trivial  punishments,  or  none  at  all, 
while  they  inflict  ignominious  death  upon  slight  invasions 
of  property,  which  in  the  Jewish  law  were  punished  by  the 
requirement  of  restitution,  or  by  a  fine. 

In  passing  from  the  consideration  of  those  heavier  crimes 
that  more  directly  affect  the  well-being  of  society,  to  others 
wherein  property  is  the  object  immediately  in  view,  we  may 
seem  to  be  descending  to  matters  of  less  importance ;  but 
in  reality  they  are  not  such.  The  distribution  of  property 
has  much  to  do  with  the  general  happiness  and  welfare  of 
a  people ;  and  in  a  state  of  society  which  does  not  possess 
the  means  of  self-adjustment,  direct  legislation  is  needful. 
In  the  early  states  of  society  there  was  more  necessity 
for  this  direct  system  of  enactment  than  there  is  at  the 
present  day.  In  those  ancient  nations,  where  the  welfare 
of  the  lower  classes  was  considered  to  be  an  object  of  care, 
there  were  legislative  provisions  in  their  behalf.  But  these 
were  at  best  imperfect.  In  Rome,  the  attempts  to  secure 
this  balance  only  tended  to  promote  civil  discord.  At  Sparta, 
they  caused  the  creation  of  a  still  more  degraded  race — their 


LAWS   AND    POLITY.  288 

slaves,  or  helots ;  and  instead  of  inducing  their  citizens  to  be 
contented,  they  eagerly  devoted  themselves  to  warfare,  and 
thus  caused  the  destruction  of  their  own  institutions. 

The  Book  of  Numbers  has  especial  reference  to  the  in- 
heritance and  allotments  of  the  tribes,  ch.  xxvi,  53  ;  xxvii, 
8,  etc.  A  particular  law  was  made  on  account  of  female 
orphans;  and  though  the  Jewish  traditional  writers  say 
that  the  law  was  made  in  reference  to  that  period  alone, 
yet  the  Christian  may,  as  a  recent  author  has  observed,  see 
cause  to  attribute  to  this  law  the  position  of  the  women 
among  the  Hebrews,  as  well  as  the  social  rank  which 
woman  takes  in  all  the  countries  of  Christendom,  in  which 
the  Bible  is  known  and  read,  as  compared  with  countries 
that  are  not  Christian.  And  the  position  of  woman  in  any 
nation,  is  a  very  clear  and  decided  test  of  the  civilization  of 
the  nation, 

A  provision  was  made  for  the  division  of  the  promised 
land,  as  soon  as  the  nation  came  into  possession.  Taking  the 
number  of  the  families  as  600,000,  and  the  area  of  Judea, 
fertile  for  the  most  part,  as  at  least  11,000,000  of  acres — 
some,  indeed,  think  it  to  have  been  far  larger, — after  all 
necessary  deductions,  it  would  leave  from  sixteen  to  twenty- 
jfive  acres  for  each  family.  This  portion  was  secured  to 
each  by  what  might  be  termed  an  agrarian  law,  which  is 
expressed,  Levit.  xxv,  43. 

Thus  that  arrangement  was  made  which  is  most  likely 
to  promote  general  happiness,  namely,  to  place  and  keep 
all  in  a  state  above  want,  and  yet  free  from  luxurious  indo- 
lence. But  this  state  was  not  only  directed  by  the  express 
enactments  of  the  law,  it  was  further  provided  for  and  ar- 
ranged by  other  wise  and  salutary  measures,  without  which 
the  direct  precept  would  have  been  of  little  avail.  Nor  was 
this  all ;  the  law  never  sought  to  stop  the  usual  course  of 
Providence,  according  to  which,  while  some  attain  property, 
others  lose,  or  vainly  struggle  to  gain.  The  poor  shall 
never  cease  out  of  the  land,  Deut.  xv,  7-11.  It  was  evi- 
dent that  some  would  have  to  part  with  their  little  estates, 
and  others  be  able  to  acquire  additions  to  their  own  ;  but  a 
plan  for  self-adjustment  was  devised.  All  debts  were  can- 
celed at  the  end  of  eveiy  seventh  year ;  and  every  seventh 
Sabbatical  year,  even  land  reverted  to  its  original  owner  or 
his  descendants.     Fifty  years  was  the  time  allotted,  beyond 


284  JEWISH   NATION. 

which  the  descendants  of  the  original  possessor  could  not 
forfeit  it.     This  is  fully  stated  in  Leviticus,  chap.  xxv. 

But  the  leveling  principle  of  socialism  was  equally- 
guarded  against.  Property  in  houses  and  effects  was  not 
thus  protected  ;  of  these,  a  man  might  gain  possession  with- 
out limitation,  though  the  adding  of  field  to  field  in  order 
to  dwell  alone  was  forbidden.  How  long  these  habits  of 
simpHcity  subsisted,  is  not  expressly  stated  ;  but  the  de- 
parture from  them  was  evidently  one  of  the  causes  why  the 
land  was  brought  under  the  Assyrian  yoke — that  it  might 
enjoy  its  Sabbaths.  When  the  Sabbatical  year  was  forgot- 
ten, there  could  be  no  restitution  of  inheritance,  2  Chron. 
xxxvi,  21.  Yet  the  indelible  character  of  these  laws  was  re- 
cognized to  the  last ;  even  when  Jerusalem  was  betrayed, 
the  prophet  Jeremiah,  then  in  prison,  became  a  party  to  a 
transaction  of  this  nature  under  one  branch  of  these  laws — 
the  right  of  pre-emption,  or  purchasing  in  anticipation, 
which  every  one  possessed  in  the  land  of  his  kindred ;  see 
Jer.  xxxii.  So  long  as  these  arrangements  continued,  there 
seems  to  have  been  no  facility  for  the  assumption  of  power 
by  others,  than  those  who  were  appointed  to  be  their  lead- 
ers, Deut.  xxix,  10. 

Another  enactment  directed  the  daily  payment  of  labor- 
ers, Levit.  xix,  13  ;  Deut.  xxiv,  14,  15.  See  Matt,  xx,  8.  In 
later  times  this  was  neglected,  Jer.  xxii,  13  ;  James  v,  4. 
Especial  consideration  was  shown  to  the  feelings  of  the  poor, 
as  well  as  their  wants,  as  Graves  remarks  on  Deut.  xxiv,  10  : 
**When  thou  dost  lend  thy  brother  anything,  thou  shalt 
not  go  into  his  house  to  fetch  his  pledge."  "  No  :  says  the 
law,  the  hovel  of  the  poor  must  be  sacred  as  a  holy  asy- 
lum ;  the  eye  of  scorn  and  the  foot  of  pride  must  not  dare 
to  intrude ;  even  the  agent  of  mercy  must  not  enter  it  ab- 
ruptly and  unbid,  without  consulting  the  feelings  of  its 
wretched  inhabitants." 

In  the  directions  respecting  harvest,  a  grasping  spirit  was 
especially  forbidden,  Deut.  xxiv,  19-21 ;  Levit.  xix,  9,  10  ; 
xxiii,  22.  All  these  provisions,  and  many  more,  went  to 
guard  against  a  spirit  of  covetousness,  and  to  foster  the 
habit  of  readiness  to  distribute.  This  tended  to  check  the 
desire  for  undue  acquisitions ;  and  surely  it  was  the  best 
way  to  guard  against  theft,  and  to  promote  the  observance 
of  the  tenth  commandment.     The  ninth  commandment  was 


LAWS  AND   POLITY.  285 

no  less  protected  by  these  enactments  concerning  property. 
The  chief  temptations  to  falsehood  and  perjury  are  ever 
found  in  connection  with  theft  and  covetousness. 

How  far  more  simple  and  forcible  were  these  precepts 
than  the  boasted  regulations  of  Sparta,  which  have  been 
highly  praised  by  many  worldly  wise  men,  whilst  despising 
their  Bibles  !  "  Is  not  such  a  scheme  of  government  (as  that 
of  the  Jews)  worthy  of  the  Divine  Author  to  whom  it  is 
ascribed  ?  And  does  not  its  establishment  at  so  early  a 
period,  and  among  a  people  so  apparently  incapable  of 
inventing  it,  attest  its  heavenly  original !" 


CHAPTER  in. 

SLAVES  AND   SERVANTS. 

Most  of  the  servants  in  ancient  times  were  slaves  ;  that  is, 
persons  who  were  the  property  of  others — the  same  as 
their  horses,  or  cows,  and  other  animals — who  must  do 
everything  that  they  were  ordered,  whether  right  or  wrong, 
and  could  not  leave  their  masters.  This  kind  of  service,  or 
slavery,  as  it  is  called,  is  very  ancient,  and  exists  even  now 
among  many  nations.  The  slaves  among  the  Jews,  and 
other  ancient  nations,  were  also  the  property  of  their  mas- 
ters, but  they  were  instructed  in  religion,  and  treated  far 
more  kindly  than  negro  slaves  in  modem  times. 

People  were  made  slaves  in  different  ways.  1.  When 
prisoners  were  taken  in  war,  they  became  the  slaves  of  the 
conquerors,  Gen.  xiv,  14  ;  Deut.  xx,  14  ;  2  Chron.  xxviii, 
8 ;  Dan.  i,  4  ;  and  many  other  places  might  be  referred  to. 
2.  Offenders,  such  as  had  committed  thefts,  or  other  of- 
fenses, were  sold  for  slaves,  Exod.  xxii,  3.  3.  Also  for  debt. 
When  persons  owed  more  than  they  could  pay,  they  be- 
came slaves  to  those  to  whom  they  were  indebted,  or  they 
were  sold  to  other  people,  2  Kings  iv,  1 ;  Neh.  v,  4,  5  ; 
Matt,  xviii,  25.  4.  Others  were  kidnapped,  or  seized 
without  any  cause ;  such  in  fact  was  the  case  with  Joseph. 
5.  Some  were  the  children  of  slaves,  and  bom  in  the  mas- 
ter's family,  Gen.  xiv,  11 ;  xv,  3  ;  xvii,  23  ;  xxi,  10  ;  Psa. 
Ixxxvi,  16  ;  cxvi,  16  ;  Jer.  ii,  14.     Slaves  of  this  latter  class 


286  JEWISH  NATION. 

were  generally  treated  with  more  kindness  than  the  others ; 
but  there  was  a  great  difference  between  them  and  the  sons 
of  the  family,  as  the  apostle  describes,  Rom.  viii,  15  ;  Gal. 
iv,  6.  Yet  their  masters  put  confidence  in  them,  and  we 
find  they  were  often  armed  in  their  service  :  see  Gen.  xiv,  14 ; 
xxxii,  6 ;  xxxiii,  1.  From  the  words  of  Job,  (xxxi,  13,)  we  may 
learn  that  there  were  masters  who  treated  their  slaA^es  kindly ; 
some  such  we  hope  there  are  even  now,  but  it  is  to  be  feared 
that  many  act  far  otherwise.  The  honors  bestowed  upon 
Joseph  and  Daniel  show  that  slaves  were  sometimes  ad- 
vanced to  great  authority ;  and  it  is  singular  to  remark,  that 
in  Egypt  at  the  present  day,  the  beys  who  rule  that  coun- 
try, for  the  most  part,  have  been  slaves. 

In  the  law  of  Moses  there  are  many  precepts  respecting 
the  treatment  of  slaves,  which  show  that  the  Divine  law 
was  a  law  of  mercy  for  them:  see  Exod.  xx,  10;  xxi,  20, 
26,  27  ;  Deut.  v,  14  ;  xii,  18  ;  xvi,  11,  etc.  Yet  these  pre- 
cepts also  show  us  that,  after  all,  the  state  of  slavery  is  a 
hard  bondage,  and  that  slaves  were  often  treated  unkindly, 
or  such  laws  would  not  have  been  needed. 

Hebrews  who  had  been  compelled  to  become  slaves,  were 
to  be  set  free  at  the  seventh  year,  unless  they  chose  to  con- 
tinue in  the  service  of  their  master,  Deut.  xv,  12  ;  and,  from 
Jer.  xxxiv,  9,  etc.,  we  find  that  the  neglect  of  this  command 
was  one  reason  why  the  Lord  delivered  the  Jewish  nation 
into  the  hands  of  their  enemies,  verse  20. 

The  strict  obedience  required  from  servants  in  ancient 
times  was  referred  to  by  the  centurion.  Matt,  viii,  9.  "  I 
say  to  my  servant.  Do  this,  and  he  doeth  it."  Thus  a 
captive  chief,  being  asked  why  he  had  been  found  in  arms 
against  the  English,  answered,  "  My  master  sent  me.  He 
says  to  his  people,  to  one,  '  Go  you  to  Ghurwal :'  to  another, 
*  Go  you  to  Cashmire.'  My  lord,  thy  slave  obeys.  It  is  done. 
None  ever  inquires  into  the  reason  of  an  order  of  the  rajah." 

The  condition  of  slaves  among  the  Greeks  and  Romans 
was  far  worse  than  among  the  Jews.  Their  masters  could 
treat  them  as  they  pleased,  just  as  a  cruel  person  may  now 
treat  any  animal  he  possesses  :  nay,  worse,  for,  in  our  coun- 
try, cruel  people  are  not  allowed  to  torture  or  injure  even 
beasts.  Surely  this  should  show  us  how  much  happier  it 
is  to  live  in  a  land  where  the  true  God  is  really  worshiped, 
than  to  live  among  heathens.     This  cruel  treatment  caused 


LAWS    AND    POLITY.  287 

rebellions  or  insurrections  among  the  Roman  slaves,  in 
which  many  thousand  lives  were  lost ;  but  we  do  not  hear 
of  any  among  the  Jews.  At  Rome,  also,  persons  who  could 
not  pay  their  debts  were  sold  for  slaves,  and  were  used  as 
cruelly  as  the  others. 

The  apostle  Paul  often  refers  to  the  state  and  condition 
of  slaves  to  explain  his  meaning,  and  to  express  it  more 
strongly.  Thus  he  speaks  of  believers  as  being  the  servants 
of  Christ,  bound  to  do  the  will  of  their  Lord,  and  to  exert 
themselves  in  his  service.  He  says,  *'  Ye  are  not  your  own, 
for  ye  are  bought  with  a  price ;  therefore  glorify  God  in 
your  body,  and  in  your  spirit,  which  are  God's,"  1  Cor.  vi, 
19,  20.  He  also  refers  to  the  marks  with  which  slaves 
were  branded,  when  he  speaks  of  the  manner  in  which  his 
body  was  marked  with  scars,  and  other  tokens  of  his  suf- 
ferings in  the  cause  of  Christ :  he  says,  "  I  bear  in  my 
body  the  marks  of  the  Lord  Jesus."  The  prophet  Isaiah 
alludes  to  these  marks,  xliv,  5.  Many  early  Christians 
marked  their  arms  with  the  sign  of  the  cross,  or  the  name 
of  Christ. 

Very  often  slaves  were  redeemed ;  that  is,  a  price  was 
paid,  which  is  called  a  ransom,  to  make  them  free.  This 
affords  a  beautiful  illustration  of  the  grace  of  our  Lord  Je- 
sus Christ :  by  nature  and  practice  we  are  the  slaves  of  sin ; 
but  Christ  became  our  Redeemer ;  and  vast  indeed  is  the 
price  he  paid  to  ransom  us.  The  apostle  says,  "  Ye  were 
not  redeemed  with  corruptible  things,  as  silver  and  gold ; 
but  with  the  precious  blood  of  Christ,"  1  Pet.  i,  18,  19: 
"  Who  gave  himself  for  us,  that  he  might  redeem  us  from 
all  iniquity,  and  purify  unto  himself  a  peculiar  people, 
zealous  of  good  works,"  Titus  ii,  14. 

But  let  no  one  suppose  that  slavery  is  authorized  or  ap- 
proved of  by  God,  because  it  is  thus  mentioned  in  the  Bible. 
Slavery  is  quite  opposed  to  the  character  and  precepts  of 
the  Gospel ;  the  text,  1  Thess.  iv,  6,  "  Let  no  man  go  be- 
yond and  defraud"  (oppress  or  overreach)  "  his  brother  in 
any  matter,"  is  sufficient,  even  if  there  were  no  more,  to 
show  us  that  it  is  not  lawful  to  treat  our  fellow-creatures  as 
slaves.  And  in  the  law  as  given  by  Moses,  it  is  expressly 
commanded  that  man-stealers,  those  who  kidnap  others  to 
sell  them  for  slaves,  should  be  put  to  death. 

We  also  find  various  precepts  addressed  to  those  who 


288  JEWISH  NATION. 

were  slaves,  showing  that  they  were  to  act  as  becometh 
the  Gospel,  which  spoke  of  pardon  and  salvation  for  them 
as  well  as  their  masters.  Thus  we  read,  (1  Pet.  ii,  18,) 
**  Servants,  be  subject  to  your  masters  with  all  fear ;  not 
only  to  the  good  and  gentle,  but  also  to  the  froward."  The 
apostle  Paul  says,  (Eph.  iv,  5-8,)  "  Servants,  be  obedient 
to  them  that  are  your  masters  according  to  the  flesh,  with 
fear  and  trembling,  in  singleness  of  your  heart,  as  unto 
Christ ;  not  with  eye-service,  as  men-pleasers ;  but  as  the 
servants  of  Christ,  doing  the  will  of  God  from  the  heart ; 
with  good-will  doing  service,  as  to  the  Lord,  and  not  to 
men  :  knowing  that  whatsoever  good  thing  any  man  doeth, 
the  same  shall  he  receive  of  the  Lord,  whether  he  be  bond 
or  free."  Remember,  that  these  exhortations  were  not  ad- 
dressed to  the  slaves  of  Christian  or  Jewish  masters  only, 
but  also  to  those  who  were  the  servants  of  heathens.  Nor 
should  Christian  masters  forget  the  especial  injunctions  that 
all  their  servants  should  enjoy  the  rest  of  the  Sabbath,  and 
religious  instruction. 

In  former  times  there  were  slaves  in  England  ;  they  were 
bought  and  sold  just  as  the  negroes  in  the  West  Indies  used 
to  be,  and  as  they  are  even  now  sold  in  some  parts  of  the 
United  States  of  North  America ;  also  in  South  America, 
and  in  many  other  lands.  A  few  hundred  years  ago,  men, 
women,  and  children  were  exposed  for  sale  on  the  quay  at 
Bristol,  just  like  cattle  or  sheep.  In  the  accounts  of  the 
abbey  of  Dunstable  for  the  year  1283,  there  is  mention 
made  of  "  our  slave  by  birth,  William  Pike,  and  all  his 
family,"  being  sold  for  a  mark ;  that  is,  about  three  dol- 
lars. It  is  noticed  as  any  common  occurrence.  The  price 
of  this  man  and  all  his  family  was  not  more  than  about  fifty 
dollars  of  our  money  at  the  present  day.  But  the  reader 
probably  has  heard  that  there  are  no  slaves  in  England,  and 
has  been  told,  that  if  a  slave  treads  upon  English  ground 
he  directly  becomes  free.  This  has  been  the  case  with 
some  poor  blacks  who  have,  at  different  times,  been  car- 
ried to  that  country.  They  became  free  when  the  ship 
arrived  there.  But,  after  all,  it  is  a  fact  that  there  still 
ARE  MANY  SLAVES  IN  England.  "  How  is  this  ?"  the  reader 
may  say ;  "I  never  heard  of  any."  Perhaps  so,  and  yet 
after  all,  my  reader,  you  may  be  a  slave  yourself.  Are 
you  surprised  to  hear  this  ? — turn  to  Romans  vi,  16 :  "  Know 


LAWS  AND   POLITY.  289 

ye  not  that  to  whom  ye  yield  yourselves  servants  to  obey, 
his  servants"  (or  slaves)  "  ye  are  to  whom  ye  obey;  whether 
of  sin  unto  death,  or  of  obedience  unto  righteousness  ?" 
Read  on  to  the  end  of  the  chapter.  Is  there  no  evil  pas- 
sion or  sinful  practice  which  you  often  give  way  to,  or  de- 
light in  ?  Remember,  "  no  man  can  serve  two  masters," 
Matt,  vi,  24.  Satan  is  a  hard  master ;  turn  then  to  Christ, 
whose  yoke  is  easy,  and  whose  burden  is  light,  whose 
"commandments  are  not  grievous;"  and  remember  the 
words  of  the  Psalmist,  "I  will  walk  at  liberty;  for  I 
seek  thy  precepts,"  Matt,  xi,  30 ;  1  John  v,  3 ;  Psalm 
cxix,  45. 

When  speaking  of  slavery,  it  should  be  mentioned,  that 
among  the  Jews  parents  had  power  to  sell  their  children. 
That  this  was  sometimes  done,  we  may  conclude  from 
Isaiah  1,  1,  and  Neh.  v,  5.  This  is  still  the  case  in  Eastern 
nations :  persons  who  have  traveled  or  lived  among  them, 
tell  us  of  instances  in  which  parents  have  brought  their 
children  for  sale,  particularly  in  times  of  famine,  as  in  the 
days  of  Nehemiah. 

The  severe  manner  in  which  slaves  were  punished,  is  also 
alluded  to  in  Scripture ;  they  were  often  confined  in  dark 
dungeons,  or  sent  to  labor  in  the  mines,  either  of  which  may 
explain  the  words  of  our  Lord,  Matt,  viii,  12  ;  xxii,  13.  In 
Luke  xii,  45,  46,  our  blessed  Lord  seems  to  have  referred 
to  the  case  of  a  slave  that  had  been  raised  to  authority,  but 
proved  to  be  a  hypocrite,  and  deceived  his  master;  who,  at 
length,  detecting  his  wicked  conduct,  ordered  him  to  be  cut 
to  pieces.  Another  cruel  punishment  inflicted  upon  slaves, 
and  the  worst  malefactors,  was  crucifixion.  It  was  a  pun- 
ishment, in  particular,  for  worthless  slaves.  St.  Paul  refers 
to  this  when  he  speaks  of  our  Lord  taking  upon  him  the 
form  of  a  servant,  and  becoming  subject  to  death,  even  the 
death  of  the  cross,  Phil,  ii,  1,  8.  And  in  Heb.  xii,  2,  he 
speaks  of  our  blessed  Lord,  "  who  for  the  joy  that  was  set 
before  him  endured  the  cross,  despising  the  shame."  This 
explains  why  the  apostle  speaks  of  the  preaching  of  the 
cross  being  foolishness  to  the  Gentiles,  (1  Cor.  i,  23,)  and 
of  glorying  in  the  cross.  Worldly-minded  men  rejected 
the  idea  of  receiving  as  their  Lord  and  Saviour,  one  who 
had  suffered  the  death  usually  inflicted  upon  slaves  and 
malefactors.  This  is  what  St.  Paul  means  when  he  speaks 
13 


290  JEWISH    NATION. 


of  the  offense  of  the  cross,  Gal.  v,  11.  In  our  times  the 
same  prejudice  does  not  precisely  exist,  yet  there  are  many 
who  take  offense  at  the  truths  of  the  Gospel.  This  will 
always  be  the  case ;  for  those  that  love  the  world,  are  not 
inchned  to  love  the  truth.  But  let  us  remember,  our  Lord 
requires  us  to  take  up  our  cross  and  follow  him ;  that  is, 
to  show  that  we  belong  to  him,  and  to  live  to  the  praise  of 
the  glory  of  his  grace,  without  minding  the  perishing  vani- 
ties and  fashions  of  this  world,  which  must  pass  away, 
1  Cor.  vii,  31 ;  nor  should  we  care  for  its  contempt. 

There  were  hired  servants,  as  well  as  slaves,  among  the 
Jews.  The  law  of  Moses  ordered  that  they  should  be 
treated  kindly,  and  expressly  directed  that  their  wages 
should  be  paid  every  day  before  sunset.  Lev.  xix,  13  ;  Deut. 
xxiv,  14, 15.  From  the  parable  of  the  laborers  in  the  vine- 
yard, (Matt.  XX,)  we  find  that  they  stood  in  the  market-place 
to  be  hired ;  that  their  daily  wages  at  that  time  were  a 
denarius,  or  about  sevenpence  halfpenny  of  our  money ;  also 
that  they  left  work  about  six  o'clock  in  the  evening,  and 
then  were  paid  their  wages. 

When  Morier  was  in  Persia,  a  few  years  ago,  he  stayed 
some  time  in  the  city  of  Hamadan.  He  saw  every  morn- 
ing, before  sunrise,  a  great  number  of  persons  assemble  in 
a  large  open  square,  with  their  tools  in  their  hands,  waiting 
to  be  hired.  Some  of  them,  as  in  the  parable,  remained 
till  late  in  the  day  without  being  hired,  and  on  asking  them, 
in  the  words  of  Scripture,  **  Why  stand  ye  here  all  the  day 
idle?"  he  received  the  answer  mentioned  in  the  parable, 
though  they  had  never  heard  of  it.  They  replied,  "  Be- 
cause no  man  hath  hired  us."  In  many  parts  of  England, 
and  even  in  London,  laborers  assemble  in  the  morning,  and 
stand  to  be  hired. 

In  other  parts  of  the  Bible  we  find  strong  injunctions  to 
deal  kindly  with  hired  servants,  as  Mai.  iii,  5 ;  James  v,  4 ; 
Jer.  xxii,  13.  The  reader  will  recollect  the  words  of  the 
prodigal  son,  when  he  reflected  upon  the  plenty  which  the 
hired  servants  of  his  father  enjoyed,  and  compared  it  with 
the  scanty  fare  which  his  master,  probably  a  heathen,  al- 
lowed him.  In  like  manner,  such  has  ever  been  the  bitter 
experience  of  all  who  follow  the  ways  of  sin ;  but  the  folly 
of  sinners  is  such,  that  they  do  not  take  warning  from  the  sad 
examples  which  prove  that  "  the  way  of  transgressors  is  hard." 


1 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  291 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE   CEREMONIAL  LAW. 


Many  of  the  ceremonial  laws  given  to  the  Jews  referred  to 
the  great  atonement,  and  were  types  and  figm-es  pointing 
to  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  our  blessed  Saviour,  and  his 
taking  our  nature,  and*  dying  for  us.  These  sacrifices,  and 
the  various  institutions  connected  with  them,  as  the  scape- 
goat, and  the  annual  festivals,  are  noticed  at  page  201  of 
this  work,  to  which  the  reader  is  referred  for  particulars 
concerning  them,  and  also  for  remarks  upon  the  circumcision 
and  other  religious  observances  practiced  by  the  ancient 
people  of  God. 

The  miscellaneous  ceremonial  institutions  of  the  Jews 
will  here  be  noticed.  These  are  well  worthy  of  examina- 
tion, since  they  will  be  found  not  to  be  arbitrary  enact- 
ments, or  such  as  must  be  traced  up  to  the  unrevealed  will 
of  God,  like  his  providential  dispensations,  Deut.  xxix,  29» 
In  mercy  to  us  he  often  restrains  us  from  evil,  by  ways  and 
means  the  wisdom  of  which  we  may  not  be  able  now  to 
discern ;  and  to  such  matters  the  words  may  be  applied, 
"  What  I  do  thou  knowest  not  now ;  but  thou  shalt  know 
hereafter,"  John  xiii,  7.  In  the  ceremonial  law,  the  mean- 
ing of  every  enactment  may  not  be  discerned,  and  may  be 
mistaken  in  those  which  seem  to  be  clearly  understood ; 
still  there  is  much  to  be  learned  respecting  them  by  search- 
ing into  history,  and  inquiring  respecting  the  customs  of 
Eastern  nations.  And  all  we  are  able  to  understand  will 
prove  more  and  more  abundantly,  that  these  enactments 
were  a  reasonable  service,  well  adapted  to  the  Jews  in  theii*'' 
peculiar  situation.  The  subject  is  interesting,  as  bringing 
before  the  mind  many  remarkable  circumstances,  and  it 
should  excite  in  the  heart  of  the  reader  especial  thankful- 
ness for  the  time  and  place  in  which  God  has  seen  fit  to  fix 
our  own  lot,  and  for  our  superior  religious  advantages. 

It  has  been  said  that  the  ceremonial  law,  by  its  sacrifices 
and  other  rites,  pointed  to  the  atonement — to  Jehovah,  as 
the  Almighty  God,  just,  and  yet  the  justifier  of  those  who 
come  unto  him  through  Christ  Jesus.     This  revelation  was 


292  JEWISH   NATION. 

always  directly  opposed  to  idolatry,  and  made  known  the 
only  true  God  as  infinitely  superior  to  idols,  Psa.  cxv ;  and 
thus  the  ignorant  and  uninstructed  were  guarded  against 
the  practices  by  which  their  souls  would  be  deeply  injured. 
Also  a  perfect  ritual  was  given,  through  which  also  the 
people  of  Israel  were  taught  instructive  lessons,  by  outward 
and  visible  signs. 

The  Sun  of  righteousness  had  not  then  arisen ;  therefore 
it  was  the  more  necessary  to  guard  the  Jews  against  the 
dangers  of  darkness,  and  to  give  thdha  some  lesser  lights  to 
guide  their  steps,  and  to  prepare  them  for  the  dawn  of  the 
Gospel  light.  In  Romans  i,  a  true  picture  of  the  state  of 
the  heathen  world  is  given,  showing  how  men  did  not  like 
to  retain  God  in  their  knowledge,  but  changed  the  truth  of 
God  unto  a  lie,  and  worshiped  and  served  the  creature 
more  than  the  Creator,  who  is  over  all,  God  blessed  for- 
ever.    Amen. 

The  minuteness  of  the  Jewish  ritual  was  then  especially 
needful,  since  there  was  danger  of  lesser  evils  leading  to 
greater  sins,  and  of  tempting  to  forbidden  practices.  Still 
there  was  full  opportunity  left  for  suiting  the  worship  to 
the  circumstances  of  time  and  place,  whether  private  or 
pubHc.  The  minute  ritual  observances,  also,  were  calcu- 
lated to  meet  the  situation  of  the  Jewish  nation,  just  able 
to  take  milk,  but  not  to  bear  strong  meat,  (1  Cor.  iii,  12,) 
having  lived  among  the  Egyptians,  whose  ritual  ceremonies 
were  very  numerous  and  diversified.  The  minuteness  of  the 
ceremonial  observances,  which  were  burdensome  rather  from 
their  numbers  than  their  expense,  showed  that  they  were 
intended  for  the  people  at  large  ;  and,  to  a  reflecting  mind, 
would  strongly  confirm  the  declaration  of  the  prophets  as 
to  the  insufficiency  of  all  ceremonial  observances  in  them- 
%elves  to  procure  pardon  for  the  soul.  A  dependence  on 
outward  rites  is  an  error  common  to  human  nature  in  every 
state.  It  abounds  among  ourselves,  even  more  than  we  are 
aware.  How  many,  in  fact,  rest  their  hope  for  acceptance 
upon  certain  ceremonial  observances,  instead  of  remember- 
ing that  these  are  nothing  in  themselves,  but  only  valuable 
as  directing  the  thoughts  to  the  one  only  perfect  and  suffi- 
cient sacrifice  for  sin. 

"  No  bleeding  bird,  nor  bleeding  beast, 
Nor  hyssop  branch,  nor  sprinkling  priest, 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  293 

Nor  running  brook,  nor  flood,  nor  sea, 
Can  wash  the  dismal  stain  away. 

Jesus,  my  God,  thy  blood  alone 
Hath  power  sufficient  to  atone  ; 
Thy  blood  can  make  me  white  as  snow. 
No  Jewish  types  could  cleanse  me  so." 

One  of  the  principal  enactments  which  claims  attention, 
as  distinct  from  ritual  observances,  was  the  separation  be- 
tween clean  and  unclean  animals.  The  principal  mark  of 
the  clean  animal  was  that  it  chewed  the  cud,  and  divided 
the  hoof ;  that  the  foot  was  not  covered  with  a  solid  mass 
of  horn,  nor  yet  separated  into  claws.  These  distinctions 
(Lev.  xi  and  Deut.  xiv)  could  not  be  merely  to  point  out 
what  was  unwholesome,  or  unfit  to  be  eaten ;  for  several 
animals  forbidden  to  the  Jews  are  eaten  in  the  present  day, 
as  hares,  camels,  and  swine.  The  distinctions  as  to  forbid- 
den birds  are  still  less  clear  upon  common  grounds.  Some 
writers  have  labored  to  make  out  that  the  forbidden  animals 
were  symbolical  of  evil  qualities,  as  the  hare  of  cowardice, 
the  hog  of  filthy  desires,  the  hawk  of  rapine;  while  the 
ruminating  animals,  or  those  that  chewed  the  cud,  symbolized 
those  who  consider  the  truth,  and  the  divided  hoof  the  at- 
tempting no  concord  between  sin  and  duty.  But  all  these 
are  mere  guesses  and  fancies,  such  as  the  early  fathers  and 
Jewish  doctors  too  often  indulged.  Neither  can  the  in- 
junctions be  regarded  as  merely  arbitrary  tests  of  obedience, 
which  would  be  unworthy  of  Jehovah.  They  were  not  re- 
quirements in  conformity  with  the  customs  of  the  heathen, 
to  which,  in  many  instances,  they  were  directly  opposed, 
and  in  that  light  we  may  be  enabled  to  discern  the  wisdom 
which  forbade  them.  Thus  the  swine  were  not  only  dis- 
agreeable in  appearance,  and  perhaps  unwholesome  if  made 
a  principal  article  of  food  in  hot  countries,  but  they  were 
used  largely,  as  heathen  writers  state,  in  pagan  sacrifices, 
feasts,  and  magical  rites.  Thus  the  absolute  abhorrence  of 
their  flesh  kept  the  conscientious  Jew  from  joining  in  ob- 
servances which  were  very  displeasing  to  the  Most  High. 
In  like  manner,  other  forbidden  animals,  as  the  goose,  will 
be  found  to  have  been  used  by  the  heathen  on  particular 
occasions. 

It  may  also  be  observed,  that  the  confining  of  the  ritual 
observances  to  one  fixed  spot  (Deut.  xii,  14)  placed  a  very 
decided  mark  of  distinction  between  the  Israelite  and  the 


294  JEWISH   NATION. 

heathen.  Also,  the  institution  of  the  priesthood  was  im- 
portant, not  only  as  commemorating  the  deliverance  from 
Egypt,  (Nmn.  iii,  12,  13,)  but  as  raising  up  a  body  of  men 
especially  zealous  for  the  peculiar  services  to  which  they 
were  appointed.  In  no  other  country  was  any  body  of 
priests  organized  upon  similar  principles.  The  rigid  exclu- 
sion of  the  Gentiles  from  the  temple  was  also  calculated  to 
keep  up  the  distinction.  Though  there  was  nothing  in  the 
Jewish  law  to  encourage  a  persecuting  or  a  bitter  spirit 
against  others,  there  was  much  to  limit  and  prevent  inter- 
course with  an  idolatrous  and  ungodly  world. 

The  direct  prohibition  to  join  in  the  worship  of  the  heathen 
was  also  calculated  to  keep  the  separation,  for  some  reli- 
gious observance  was  connected  with  almost  every  daily 
action  in  the  lives  of  the  Gentiles,  as  well  as  of  the  Jews. 
Even  the  names  of  the  days  of  the  week,  in  our  own  land, 
are  a  memorial  of  the  worship  of  false  gods  among  our  an- 
cestors, who  had  their  customary  offenngs  and  ritual  ob- 
servances that  no  society  or  circumstances  would  induce 
them  to  lay  aside.  In  this  respect  their  example  might 
shame  many  professors  of  Christianity. 

Meats  offered  to  idols,  and  reverence  for  consecrated 
groves  and  trees,  are  frequently  alluded  to  in  holy  writ. 
Whole  families  united  in  idolatrous  practices,  Jer.  vii,  18. 
The  Jew  was  called  to  show  the  same  or  even  greater  care 
for  the  observance  of  his  law.  He  was  most  strictly  for- 
bidden to  pass  his  children  through  the  fire  to  Moloch, 
(Lev.  xviii,  21,)  eitlier  as  a  burned  sacrifice,  or  by  the  mere 
ceremonial  of  passing  them  through  the  smoke,  as  a  sort  of 
expiation,  believing  that  otherwise  they  would  die  in  their 
infancy. 

A  pious  writer  says,  ''  There  is  little  pleasure  in  describ- 
ing scenes  of  horror ;  but  they  are  useful,  they  show  the 
evils  of  a  false  religion,  and  should  make  us  thankful  for 
the  enjoyment  of  the  true.  Let  it  be  known,  then,  to  the 
disgrace  of  the  Israehtes,  that  although  in  possession  of  the 
knowledge  and  worship  of  the  true  God,  they  were  but  too 
much  inclined  to  the  worship  of  idols ;  and  that  in  the  val- 
ley of  Hinnom  they  erected  an  altar  to  one  of  those  agents 
which  God  employs  for  the  benefit  of  the  world.  The  solar 
fire  was  erected  into  a  divinity.  An  idol  of  brass,  having 
the  head  of  an   ox  but  the  body  of  a  man,  was  made  to 


LAWS   AND   POLITY.  295 


OFFERING   CHILDREN  IN  SACRIFICE  TO  MOLOCH. 

represent  it.  That  idol  was  placed  on  a  throne  of  the  same 
metal ;  a  crown  was  placed  on  its  head,  and  its  hands  were 
extended  to  receive  their  gifts.  But  what  gifts  were  deemed 
most  acceptable  ?  Had  garlands  of  roses,  baskets  of  fruits, 
or  the  lives  of  animals  been  the  only  request,  it  had  been 
comparatively  well ;  but  human  sacrifices  were  demanded, 
and  the  tender  pledges  of  domestic  love  glutted  the  rapacity 
of  the  fictitious  divinity.  The  hollow  idol  was  heated  to 
redness ;  the  parent  himself,  by  a  refinement  of  cruelty,  in 
order  to  acquire  the  summit  of  sanctity,  became  the  priest, 
— himself  must  place  his  darling  in  his  arms.  No  bewitch- 
ing smiles  or  mournful  cries  must  drive  him  from  his  pur- 
pose. His  eye  must  not  pity,  nor  his  ear  regard.  His 
heart  must  be  steeled  against  every  tender  impression,  and 
a  complete  conquest  obtained  over  the  feelings  of  humanity. 
The  scene  lasted  not  long ;  sacred  drums,  as  they  were 
called,  drowned  the  cries  of  the  suffering  infants ;  their 
bodies  became  the  victims  of  merciless  superstition,  but 
their  souls  fled  to  a  merciful  God.     The  place  where  Mo- 


296  JEWISH  NATION. 

loch  was  worshiped  was  called  the  Valley  of  Hinnom,  or  of 
*  those  who  shrieked,'  and  the  Valley  of  Tophet,  or '  drums/ 
from  their  being  used  on  such  occasions.  The  image  was 
made  hollow,  and  sat  within  seven  chapels ;  whoso  oflFerecl 
a  flower,  they  opened  to  him  the  first  of  these ;  whoso 
offered  turtles  or  pigeons,  they  opened  to  him  the  next ;  to 
the  offerers  of  lambs,  rams,  calves,  or  oxen,  the  four  fol- 
lowing ;  but  whoso  offered  his  son,  they  opened  to  him  the 
seventh." 

The  prohibition  to  seethe  a  kid  in  its  mother's  milk,  re- 
peated three  times,  (Exod.  xxxiii,  19,  and  xxxiv,  26  ;  Deut. 
xiv,  21,)  has  puzzled  many.  Some  have  thought  the  food 
was  not  wholesome ;  others,  that  it  was  inhuman.  But  we 
learn  from  ancient  writers  that  this  practice  was  used  in 
magical  incantations ;  for  a  kid  was  killed,  and  boiled  in 
milk  drawn  from  its  mother,  and  then  the  trees,  gardens, 
and  fields  were  sprinkled  with  the  milk,  in  order  to  render 
them  fruitful.  It  was,  in  fact,  a  heathen  sacrifice,  especially 
contrasted  with  the  thank-offering  for  the  harvest,  and  the 
mention  of  it  is  connected  with  the  law  for  the  ceremony 
of  offering  the  first-fruits.  This  law  was  also  in  accordance 
with  the  feast  of  tabernacles  or  ingathering,  the  prohibition 
of  leavened  bread  at  the  passover,  and  the  command  that 
the  first-fruits  should  be  brought  only  to  the  temple.  These 
customs  are  all  more  fully  described  at  pages  213-216 
of  this  volume,  and  were  all  prohibitions  of  heathen  ob- 
servances. 

The  direction  not  to  mar  the  comers  of  their  beards,  in 
Lev.  xix,  27,  forbade  the  heathen  practice  of  tearing  the 
hair  or  beard,  to  lay  it  on  the  funeral  pile,  or  as  marks  of 
mourning.  The  original  term  seems  also  to  include  various 
modes  of  cutting  the  hair,  used  among  the  heathen  as  marks 
of  gratitude,  or  vows  of  dedication  to  some  idolatrous  object. 
Maimonides,  in  his  treatise  concerning  idolatry,  details  many 
of  these  heathen  ceremonials.  The  cutting  of  hair  for  the 
dead  (Lev.  xix,  28)  was  also  a  heathen  funeral  observance. 
It  is  even  now  practiced  by  the  American  Indians,  and 
others.  The  Jews  who  fell  into  idolatry  gave  way  to  this 
practice,  and  the  prophets  especially  rebuked  it.  Isa.  xv,  2 ; 
Jer.  xvi,  6  ;  xlvii,  5. 

The  custom  of  imprinting  marks  upon  the  body,  forbid- 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  297 

den  in  the  same  passage,  has  been  a  favorite  usage  with 
most  uncivilized  heathens.  We  read  of  it  among  the  an- 
cient Britons,  and  have  seen  it  in  the  natives  of  Polynesia,' 
or  the  South  Sea  Islands. 

Often  the  ancient  heathens  showed  who  was  their  favor- 
ite deity  by  these  marks :  thus  a  thunderbolt  was  used  for 
Jupiter,  a  spear  for  Mars,  an  ivy  leaf  for  Bacchus,  and  a 
trident  for  Neptune.  When  Ptolemy  Philopater  persecuted 
the  Jews  of  Alexandria,  he  ordered  that  they  should  be 
marked  with  the  ivy  leaf,  the  symbol  of  his  god,  Bacchus, 
or  else  doomed  to  slavery  and  death.  These  marks  were 
sometimes  impressed  with  a  hot  iron,  but  more  frequently 
by  pressing  sharp  points  into  the  flesh,  and  filling  the  pimc- 
tures  with  some  indelible  liquid,  as  is  done  in  the  South 
Seas.  True  religion  requires  its  followers  also  to  bear  the 
mark  or  badge  of  their  profession,  even  holiness,  and  sepa- 
ration from  the  world,  2  Cor.  vi,  17.  In  Rev.  xiv,  1,  the 
followers  of  the  Lamb  are  described  as  having  his  Father's 
name  in  their  foreheads,  and  the  w^orshipers  of  the  beast 
as  having  his  mark  on  their  right  hands  or  foreheads.  Rev. 
xiii,  27. 

The  early  Christians  adopted  the  cross  as  their  badge, 
which  was  then  a  token  of  reproach ;  but  Satan,  ever  on 
the  watch,  turned  this  to  an  occasion  of  evil,  and  it  was  af- 
terwards a  badge  of  idolatry,  worship  being  given  to  the 
cross,  not  to  Him  who  died  on  it.  The  early  Christians 
spoke  of  heathen  and  Christian  badges  as  not  agreeing; 
they  might  have  expressed  their  meaning  in  still  plainer 
terms,  so  as  to  leave  no  doubt  that  they  referred  to  inward, 
and  not  mere  outward  observances :  see  Rom.  ii,  29. 

The  cross  seems  to  have  been  originally  a  Jewish  mark. 
It  is  beautifully  referred  to,  Ezek.  ix,  4,  as  the  ancient 
figure  of  the  Hebre^  letter  ri,  though  let  it  be  here  ob- 
served that  the  outward  sign  or  figure  is  very  briefly  passed 
by.  The  passage  implies  merely  a  marking  or  setting 
apart  of  the  people  of  God  from  others,  like  the  blood-be- 
sprinkled doors  in  Exod.  xii,  13.  Those  who  have  been 
among  the  Hindoos  describe  many  of  them  as  bearing  marks 
on  their  foreheads,  consisting  of  spots  of  diflerent  colored 
chalk,  distinguishing  the  god  whom  they  serve.  This  may 
remind  the  reader  of  Deut.  xxxii,  5. 

The  injunction,  Deut.  xxii,  5,  that  the  sexes  should  not 
13* 


298  JEWISH  NATION. 

wear  the  dresses  of  each  other,  is,  in  some  degree,  a  moral 
precept.  Bad  consequences  have  followed  such  changes, 
even  when  made  only  in  sport,  and  they  cannot  be  too 
strictly  forbidden  amongst  youth.  Among  the  Jews  there 
was  probably  another  circumstance  also  in  view :  Maimoni- 
des  relates  that,  among  the  heathens,  it  was  customary  for 
a  woman  to  put  on  a  man's  coat  of  armor,  for  the  worship 
of  the  idol  Mars ;  and  for  men,  in  like  manner,  to  wear  female 
attire,  in  honor  of  Venus.  These  usages  were  attended 
with  gross  immorality.  All  such  practices,  as  well  as  hea- 
then superstitions,  were  therefore  guarded  against  by  this 
command. 

A  similar  explanation  may  be  given  as  to  the  law  against 
plowing  with  an  ox  or  an  ass  together,  Deut.  xxii,  10. 
The  yoking  animals  so  dissimilar  in  strength  and  habits,  be- 
sides being  a  cruel  practice,  was  connected  with  some  hea- 
then rites.  This  regulation,  and  others  connected  with  it, 
have  been  traced  to  be  in  direct  opposition  to  the  usages  of 
the  Zabians,  doubtless  derived  from  the  most  ancient  kind 
of  idolatry,  that  which  Job  condemned,  ch.  xxxi,  26-28. 
Under  this  head  might  also  be  classed  the  wearing  garments 
of  linen  and  woolen  mixed  together,  which  was  not  only  a 
practice  of  the  Zabians,  but  the  scholars  of  Pythagoras  also 
were  dressed  in  cloth  made  of  wool  and  flax.  Other  rites 
were  connected  with  sowing  different  sorts  of  seed  together. 
All  these  prohibitions  tended  to  keep  the  Jews  from  mixing 
with  idolaters.  Had  they  gone  among  them,  they  must 
have  been  in  contact  with  rites  and  articles  forbidden  in 
express  terms  by  their  law.  But  enough  has  been  shown 
in  the  foregoing  examples  to  render  it  unnecessary  to  enter 
upon  details  which  cannot  profit  at  this  time.  Several 
ceremonial  observances  may  therefore  be  briefly  passed 
over.  Here,  for  instance,  the  laws  respecting  uncleanhness, 
Lev.  XV  and  xx ;  the  rules  to  be  observed  by  the  priests. 
Lev.  xxi  and  xxii ;  and  also  the  directions  concerning  the 
plague  of  leprosy,  Lev.  xiii  and  xiv ;  Deut.  xxiv,  8,  9.  Re- 
specting these  also  several  particulars  are  given  in  page  228. 

The  prohibition  against  eating  blood  was  also  subversive 
of  certain  Gentile  superstitions,  and  is  frequently  enjoined. 
Lev.  xvii  and  xix,  26;  vii,  26,  27;  Deut.  xli,  16;  xv,  23. 
This  prohibition  has  been  justly  described  as  most  consist- 
ent with  temperRnc(3,  prudence,  and  religious  caution ;  for 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  299 

flesh  eaten  with  blood  in  warm  climates  is  indigestible  and 
unwholesome.  But  here,  no  doubt,  there  was  a  reference 
to  the  appointed  sacrifices  and  to  the  precious  blood  of 
Christ,  which  alone  cleanseth  from  all  sin,  as  the  great  sacri- 
fice that  all  lesser  victims  were  designed  to  prefigure,  which 
is  so  often  and  plainly  declared  in  Scripture,  1  John  i,  7 ; 
Rev.  i,  5 ;  Heb.  ix,  14. 

Many  of  the  heathens,  in  their  sacrificial  observances, 
also  drank  a  part  of  the  blood  of  the  victim,  and  by  joining 
together  in  this,  sealed  their  most  solemn  vows,  which,  in 
fact,  were  made  under  the  sanction  of  the  evil  one.  Of  this 
the  prophet  speaks,  Ezek.  xxxiii,  25 ;  and  the  classical 
scholar  will  recollect  the  descriptions  of  Homer,  from  which 
it  is  clear,  that  by  that  practice  they  thought  to  hold  com- 
munion with  spirits  in  the  invisible  world.  St.  Paul,  in 
1  Cor.  X,  20,  21,  shows  that  these  things  were  incompatible 
with  true  religion.  The  prohibition  against  eating  blood 
was  needful  in  the  days  of  the  early  Christians,  but  is  not 
so  now  that  heathenism  has  disappeared,  Acts  xv,  20. 
Still,  however,  cruelty  is  a  sin  against  this  law. 

The  ceremonial  laws  respecting  purifications  not  only 
kept  up  a  needful  separation  from  unbelievers,  but  they 
also  distinctly  pointed  out  the  holiness  of  heart  and  life  re- 
quired by  the  Divine  law.  The  celebrated  Jewish  writer, 
Maimonides,  observes,  "  Cleanliness  of  dress,  washing  of  the 
body,  and  the  removal  of  all  dirt  and  squalidness,  is  cer- 
tainly the  intention  of  the  law ;  but  subordinate  to  the  puri- 
fication of  the  conduct  and  the  heart  from  depraved  and 
corrupt  morals.  For  to  think  that  exterior  purity,  by  ab- 
lutions of  the  body  and  dress,  can  be  sufficient,  though  a 
man  indulges  in  gluttony  and  drunkenness,  is  the  extremest 
madness." 

Thus  the  ceremonial  law  of  the  Jews  taught  them  the 
leading  doctrines  of  divine  truth,  first,  by  those  rites  which 
were,  as  St.  Paul  describes,  types  and  shadows  of  good 
things  to  come:  Heb.  viii,  9,  10.  Secondly,  by  pointing 
out  certain  things  to  be  abstained  from,  which  had  direct 
reference  to  heathen  worship  and  idolatrous  practices. 
Thus,  even  those  who  did  not  enter  into  the  typical  mean- 
ing of  the  first  class  of  ceremonies,  who  did  not  look  to  the 
Messiah  therein  set  forth,  were  guarded  from  the  debasing 
and  abominable  practices  of  the  heathen,  and  might  be  led 


300  JEWISH    NATION. 

to  ask  why  they  were  thus  kept  a  separate  people,  which 
the  prophets  constantly  called  on  them  to  remember.     The 
epistle  to  the  Hebrews  especially  gives  information  on  the 
subject  of  the  ceremonial  law,  and  should  be  read  in  con- 
nection with  the  Pentateuch,  for  the  purpose  of  obtaining 
clear  ideas  on  these  points.     It  has  been  well  called  the 
Jewish  Gospel.     The  following  remarks  by  Dr.  Owen  are 
appropriate  to  the  subject.     "By  the  blood  of  sacrifices, 
God  signified  his  will  and  pleasure  in  two  things:  First, 
That  by  this  blood  there  should  be  a  pohtical  remission 
granted   to  sinners,  that  they  should  not  die  under  the 
sentence  of  the  law,  as  it  was  the  rule  of  the  government  of 
the  nation.     And  in  this  sense,  for  such  sins  as  were  not 
politically  to  be  spared,  no  sacrifice  was  allowed.     Secondly, 
That  real  spiritual  forgiveness  and  gracious  acceptance  with 
himself  was  to  be  obtained  only  by  that  which  was  signified 
by  this  blood,  which  was  the  sacrifice  of  Christ  himself. 
And  whereas  the  sins  of  the  people  were  of  various  kinds, 
there  were  particular  sacrifices  instituted  to  answer  that 
variety.     Their  institution  and  order  is  recorded,  Lev.  i,  Y ; 
and  if  any  person  neglected  that  especial  sacrifice  which 
was  appointed  to  make  atonement  for  his  especial  sin,  he 
was  left  under  the  sentence  of  the  law;   politically  and 
spiritually  there  was  no  remission.     Yea,  also,  there  might 
be  sins  that  could  not  be  reduced  directly  to  any  of  those 
for  whose  remission  sacrifices  were  directed.     Wherefore 
God  graciously  provided  against  the  distress  or  ruin  of  the 
Church  on  either  of  these  accounts.     He  had  graciously  pre- 
pared the  great  anniversary  sacrifice,  wherein  public  atone- 
ment was  made  for  all  the  sins,  transgressions,  and  iniquities 
of  the  whole  people,  of  what  sort  soever  they  were :  Lev. 
xvi,  21.     But  in  the  whole  of  his  ordinances  he  established 
the  rule,  that  *  without  shedding  of  blood  there  is  no  re- 
mission.'    This  is  the  great  demonstration  of  the  demerit  of 
sin,  of  the  holiness,  righteousness,  and  grace  of  God.     For 
such  was  the  nature  of  sin,  such  was  the  righteousness  of 
God,  that  without  shedding  of  blood  it  could  not  be  par- 
doned.    And  what  blood  must  this  be?     That  the  blood 
of  bulls  and  of  goats  should  take  away  sin,  was  utterly  im- 
possible, as  our  apostle  declares.     It  must  be  the  blood  of 
the  Son  of  God  :  Rom.  iii,  24,  25  ,'  Acts  xx,  28.     And  herein 
were  glorified  both  the  love  and  grace  of  God,  in  that  he 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  301 

spared  not  his  only  Son,  but  gave  him  up  to  be  a  bloody 
sacrifice  in  death  for  us  all." 

It  may  also  be  remarked,  that  the  ceremonial  law  neces- 
sarily ceased  with  the  existence  of  the  Jewish  polity,  as  a 
separate  state.  It  was  to  the  Jews  a  safe-guard  and  sup- 
port, and  conferred  on  them  benefits  which  far  outweighed 
its  burdens ;  but  when  the  Jewish  nation  had  filled  up  the 
measure  of  their  guilt,  by  crucifying  the  Lord  of  glory, 
when  the  Romans  were  sent  to  take  away  their  place  and 
nation,  then  the  Jewish  ceremonial  law  was  abrogated,  and 
became  unnecessary.  There  was  no  longer  a  reason  for 
these  restrictions  when  the  door  was  opened  to  the  Gentiles, 
and  therefore,  even  before  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  the 
remarkable  discussion  described  in  Acts  xv,  decided,  under 
the  guidance  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  that  those  teachers  were 
wrong  who  thought  it  needful  to  bring  Gentile  Christians 
under  the  Jewish  yoke.  Other  enactments  were  given,  of 
which  the  literal  observance  would  be  useful,  till  the  do- 
minion of  heathenism  had  ceased  in  the  Christian  world ; 
and  which,  in  a  spiritual  sense,  would  require  to  be  regarded 
through  succeeding  ages. 


CHAPTER  V. 

VOWS  AND   PURIFICATIONS. 

The  Jewish  vows  were  observances  closely  connected  with 
this  part  of  our  subject ;  but  they  were  hmited  to  the  Mo- 
saic dispensation,  rather  than  applicable  to  the  Christian 
system.  The  directions  as  to  vows  will  be  found.  Lev.  xxvii ; 
Num.  XXX ;  Deut  xxiii,  21-23.  These  passages  show, 
that  the  particulars  of  a  vow  were  to  be  distinctly  expressed, 
and  not  merely  a  mental  resolution :  this  would  prevent 
many  unnecessary  scruples  in  the  minds  of  conscientious 
persons,  arising  from  passing  thoughts  and  hasty  sugges- 
tions. It  is  also  clearly  stated,  that  if  the  party  who  made 
a  vow  was  under  the  control  of  others,  the  vow  was  not 
binding  without  the  sanction  of  the  husband,  parent,  or 
superior.  But  herein  the  Jews  made  the  law  of  God  of  none 
effect  through  their  traditions  :  see  Matt,  xv,  4-6  ;  Mark 


302  JEWISH   NATION. 

vii,  9-13.  If  a  man  declared  that  his  property  was  "cor- 
ban,"  or  devoted  to  God,  he  was  considered  as  forbidden 
to  afford  his  parents  any  relief  from  that  time.  This  was  a 
device  to  let  a  parent  perish  from  want,  and,  under  pre- 
tense of  a  religious  obligation,  to  gratify  malignant  or 
covetous  feelings,  by  directly  breaking  the  fifth  command- 
ment. In  this  case,  the  son  was  not  required  actually  to 
give  to  the  temple,  or  to  the  priests,  what  ought  to  have 
been  given  to  the  parent ;  it  was  enough  if  he  declared  an 
intention  to  do  so.  Encouragement  was  thereby  given  to 
an  avaricious  spirit ;  this  was  contrary  to  the  express  law, 
(Lev.  xxvii,  15-22,  23,)  which  shows  how  the  Lord  God 
knows  the  lurking  thoughts  and  propensities  of  the  heart, 
and  how  the  love  of  riches  would  make  the  people  inchne 
to  cut  short  even  their  holy  offerings ;  therefore,  if  any  one 
changed  his  mind,  and  desired  to  retain  what  he  had  de- 
voted to  the  Lord's  service,  he  not  only  had  to  bestow 
what  was  equal  in  value,  but  to  add  one -fifth  part  more. 

At  first  we  may  be  inclined  to  doubt  that  even  the  Pha- 
risees could  countenance  such  a  direct  breach  of  the  Divine 
law  as  the  law  of  the  corhan,  when  its  advantage  to  them 
was  but  contingent.  A  little  reflection,  however,  will  ex- 
plain this.  When  the  law  of  God  had  been  thus  broken, 
the  conscience  would  be  brought  into  bondage  ;  and,  when 
the  heart  is  not  renewed,  relief  under  trouble  in  such  a 
case  will  be  sought  from  man,  rather  than  directly  from 
God  himself.  The  Pharisees  of  old,  and  the  anti-christian 
priesthood  of  later  days,  have  availed  themselves  of  this 
feeling,  and  large  sums  have  often  been  bequeathed  for 
superstitious  purposes,  in  the  hope  of  obtaining  relief  from 
self-accusation,  for  the  misemployment  of  comparatively 
small  amounts.  Here  the  declarations  of  God's  word  are 
express  :  Man  is  required  to  do  justly,  to  love  mercy,  and 
to  walk  humbly  with  his  God,  Micah  vi,  8.  "If  we  say 
that  we  have  no  sin,  we  deceive  ourselves,  and  the  tinith 
is  not  in  us.  If  we  confess  our  sins,  God  is  faithful  and 
just  to  forgive  us  our  sins,  and  to  cleanse  us  from  all  un- 
righteousness," John  i,  1-9.  It  is  not  the  offering  of 
thousands  of  rams,  or  ten  thousands  of  rivers  of  oil,  that 
will  satisfy  for  the  sin  of  the  soul.  God  can  overrule  the 
false  ideas  of  men  on  the  subject,  and  cause  a  bequest  to 
a  charitable  society,  or  a  religious  institution,  to  become 


LAWS   AND   POLITY.  808 

the  means  of  good  to  others ;  but  let  none  3onsider  that 
such  a  disposal  of  property  ever  will  remove  the  stain  which 
may  have  been  contracted  by  fraud  or  violence  in  acquiring 
wealth,  or  by  withholding  more  than  is  meet,  while  increas- 
ing the  store.     It  is  true, 

*'  There  is  a  fountain  fill'd  with  blood, 
Drawn  from  Immanuel's  veins, 
And  sinners  plunged  beneath  that  flood, 
Lose  all  their  gxiilty  stains  ;" 

and  we  are  expressly  told,  that  the  blood  of  Jesus  Christ 
cleanse th  from  all  sin,  1  John  i,  1  ;  but  when  pardon  has 
thus  been  obtained,  and  the  heart  is  renewed  by  God  the 
Holy  Spirit,  all  will  be  devoted  to  the  service  of  our  Lord 
and  Master.  Not,  however,  by  taking  or  withholding, 
contra^  to  the  principles  of  the  Divine  law,  under  the 
idea  that  wealth  thus  gotten  by  vanity,  can  be  accepted 
if  applied  for  other  purposes,  however  laudable  in  them- 
selves. Where  God  requires  services  at  our  hands,  he  will 
send  the  needful  ability  or  property  for  the  purpose.  Let 
us  seek  to  employ  the  talents  committed  to  us  in  simplicity 
and  faith,  avoiding  the  snares  into  which  many  fall,  by 
thinking  that  they  are  doing  service  to  the  Lord,  when, 
in  fact,  they  are  only  gratifying  their  own  self-will,  and 
even  their  corrupt  inclinations.  In  connection  with  this 
subject  we  may  observe,  that  whatever  was  vowed  to  God, 
must  have  been  obtained  honestly,  or  it  was  not  accepted. 
This  is  expressly  stated  in  several  passages  of  the  sacred 
writings  :  herein  was  a  striking  contrast  between  the  Di- 
vine law  and  the  observances  of  heathenism,  under  which, 
in  some  cases,  money  was  expressly  acquired  by  infamous 
and  sinful  practices,  that  it  might  be  applied  to  the  ser- 
vice of  idols.  Even  now,  in  heathen  lands,  these  shameful 
practices  exist. 

The  vows  of  execration,  or  devoting  to  destruction, 
called  cherem,  were  solemn  ;  they  did  not  admit  of  retrac- 
tion or  change  of  purpose.  The  destruction  of  Jericho, 
recorded  in  the  Book  of  Joshua,  is  a  remarkable  example 
of  this,  and  was  the  result  of  the  wrath  of  God  against  the 
sins  of  the  Canaanitish  nations.  The  circumstances  need 
not  be  here  noticed  ;  the  reader  may  refer  to  what  is  said 
upon  the  subject  in  "  The  Journeys  of  the  Children  of 
Israel."    (Youth's  Library,    No.    330.)     The  same  awful 


304  JEWISH   NATION. 

penalty  was  denounced  against  any  city  of  Israel  that  should 
introduce  the  worship  of  false  gods,  Deut.  xiii,  12-18, 
Some  have  thought  that  the  sacrifice  of  Jephthah's  daughter 
was  of  this  description ;  but  the  original  word  is  different, 
it  is  neder,  and  implies  resigning  or  giving  up  to  the  service 
of  the  Lord ;  not  chereniy  or  destruction  of  the  thing 
dedicated. 

In  Lev.  xxvii,  are  the  rules  relating  to  things  dedicated 
to  God  by  a  solemn  vow.  The  vow  of  Jacob  (Gen.  xxviii, 
20-22)  was  similar.  Other  vows  were  of  abstinence  or  self- 
denial,  as  to  abstain  from  wine,  and  to  be  scrupulously 
careful  in  some  circumstances  of  conduct.  Such  was  the 
vow  of  the  Nazarite ;  see  Numbers  vi.  There  were  two 
classes  of  Nazarites — those  wholly  devoted,  often  from 
their  birth,  as  Samson  and  John  the  Baptist ;  ani.  those 
for  a  limited  period,  which  vows  were  not  unfrequent  on 
recovery  from  sickness,  or  deliverance  from  danger,  and 
continued  for  an  interval  of  time  before  sacrifices  of  thanks- 
giving were  offered.  Here  we  may  refer  to  Acts  xviii,  18. 
The  apostle  Paul,  for  some  reason  not  recorded,  bound 
himself  by  a  vow,  in  consequence  of  which  he  shaved  his 
head,  and  we  find  him  afterwards  saying  he  must  needs  go 
to  Jerusalem.  He  felt  that  it  was  his  duty  to  proceed  there 
at  that  time ;  this  was  also  needful  for  the  performance  of 
his  vow,  for  when  such  an  engagement  was  made  in  a  fo- 
reign country,  the  party  must  go  to  Jerusalem  to  perform 
it.  We  may  notice  the  similarity  of  the  Romish  pilgrim- 
ages to  this  custom ;  but  many  abuses  accompanied  these 
observances  in  the  days  of  our  fathers,  and  are  continued  in 
some  degree  even  up  to  the  present  day. 

Advocates  of  Popery  refer  to  the  vows  under  the  Mosaic 
law,  and  to  the  Nazarites  in  particular,  when  they  seek  to 
defend  their  monastic  institutions.  But  a  slight  examina- 
tion of  the  subject  will  show,  that  even  the  ceremonial 
observances  of  the  Mosaic  law  do  not,  in  this  respect, 
afford  any  sanction  to  the  slavish  restrictions  and  painful 
results  of  the  system  maintained  by  the  Church  of  Rome. 
There  is  nothing  in  common  between  the  cheerful,  simple- 
hearted,  and  pious  devotedness  of  the  Hebrew  votaries, 
such  as  the  Rechabites,  Jer.  xxxv,  and  the  victims  of  the 
Romish  system;  the  horrors  of  which,  even  in  our  own 
times,  have  been  very  ably  delineated  by  Blanco  White, 


LAWS   AND   POLITY.  305 

and  many  others.  A  system,  by  the  principles  of  which 
Blanco  White  saw  some  of  the  intimate  friends  of  his  youth 
hurried  "  into  the  grossest  and  most  daring  profligacy :" 
while  under  its  slavish  observances  he  saw  one  sister,  at  the 
age  of  twenty-two,  slowly  sink  into  the  grave,  from  decay- 
ing health,  the  result  of  spiritual  apprehensions  and  tempo- 
ral privations ;  and  bade  farewell  to  another  sister,  who  at 
the  age  of  twenty  had  been  induced,  by  the  visionary  repre- 
sentations of  the  Romish  clergy,  to  leave  an  infirm  mother 
to  the  care  of  servants  and  strangers,  and  to  bind  herself  to 
the  observances  of  rules  which  denied  her  the  comforts  en- 
joyed even  by  the  lowest  classes  of  society.  Her  health 
speedily  gave  way,  and  disease  filled  her  conscience  with 
fears.  Her  brother  says,  "  I  had  often  to  endure  the  tor- 
ture of  witnessing  her  agonies  at  the  confessional.  I  left 
her,  when  I  quitted  Spain,  dying  much  too  slowly  for  her 
only  chance  for  relief.  I  wept  bitterly  for  her  loss  two 
years  after;  yet  I  could  not  be  so  cruel  as  to  wish  her 
alive."  After  this  brief  allusion  to  the  horrors  of  the  mo- 
nastic vows,  both  in  their  principles  and  their  effects,  can 
any  one  doubt  whether  they  are  the  institutions  of  God  or 
the  inventions  of  man  ?  They  illustrate  the  statement  of  our 
Lord,  that  the  Pharisees  bound  men  with  heavy  burdens, 
grievous  to  be  borne.  The  apostle  said  to  his  brethren,  ye 
are  not  ignorant  of  the  devices  of  Satan,  2  Cor.  ii,  11 :  let 
us  beware  that  he  get  no  advantage  over  us. 

This  part  of  our  subject  must  not  be  left  without  refer- 
ring to  the  vow  of  Jonadab,  the  son  of  Rechab,  and  the  faith- 
fulness with  which  his  descendants  observed  it  in  the  days 
of  Jeremiah,  chap,  xxxv.  It  has  been  said  that  the  Recha- 
bites  still  exist,  according  to  the  Divine  promise,  verse  19. 
Joseph  Wolff  relates,  that  one  of  these  people,  named  Mousa, 
was  pointed  out  to  him  in  1824,  while  among  the  Yezedi, 
or  devil- worshipers,  in  Mesopotamia.  He  was  wild  in  his 
appearance,  like  an  Arab,  dressed  in  the  costume  usual 
among  those  children  of  the  desert,  and  was  standing  by 
his  horse,  the  bridle  in  his  hand,  ready  to  mount.  Wolff 
showed  him  the  Bible  in  Hebrew  and  Arabic,  and  found  he 
was  acquainted  with  the  Old  Testament.  On  inquiring 
whose  descendant  he  was,  Mousa  replied  by  turning  to  the 
Book  of  Jeremiah,  and  read  chap,  xxxv,  5-1 1  ;  and  added, 
"  We  reside  at  Hadoram,  Usal,  and  Mecca,  in  the  deserts 


306  JEWISH   NATION. 

around  those  places.  We  drink  no  wine,  and  plant  no 
vineyard,  and  sow  no  seed,  and  live  in  tents,  as  Jonadab 
our  father  commanded  us.  Hobab  was  our  father  too: 
come  to  us,  you  will  still  find  sixty  thousand  in  number,  and 
you  see  thus  the  prophecy  has  been  fulfilled :  '  Therefore 
thus  saith  the  Lord  of  hosts,  the  God  of  Israel ;  Jonadab 
the  son  of  Rechab  shall  not  want  a  man  to  stand  before  me 
forever.'  "  Mousa  accepted  the  Bible,  mounted  his  horse, 
and  galloped  off  to  the  desert,  carrying  with  him  the  word 
of  God,  and  leaving  behind  him  a  striking  evidence  to  the 
truth  of  sacred  writ.  Such  is  the  account  given  by  Joseph 
Wolff;  and  let  us  not  forget  why  the  Rechabites  were  made 
a  sign  to  the  prophets,  or  rather  to  the  people  at  large. 
The  children  of  Rechab  obeyed  the  words  of  their  father ; 
the  Jews  refused  to  hsten  to  the  warnings  of  their  God,  as 
spoken  by  his  servants  the  prophets  ;  "  Behold,  I  will  bring 
upon  Judah,  and  upon  all  the  inhabitants  of  Jerusalem,  all 
the  evil  that  I  have  pronounced  against  them ;  because  I 
have  spoken  unto  them,  but  they  have  not  heard ;  and  I 
have  called  unto  them,  but  they  have  not  answered."  Aw- 
fully indeed  has  this  declaration  been  fulfilled.  How  shall 
we  escape,  if  we,  in  like  manner,  neglect  the  great  salvation 
offered  to  us ! 

The  purifications  connected  with  the  worship  of  the  Jews 
may  be  noticed  here ;  they  were  often  observed  by  the  per- 
formance of  vows,  as  Acts  xxi,  23,  24.  Washings,  or  ab- 
lutions, are  generally  among  the  most  ancient  religious  cere- 
monies of  every  nation ;  but  the  simplicity  of  the  rites  of 
purification,  directed  by  the  Divine  law,  was  well  calculated 
to  guard  the  Israelites  against  the  use  of  the  superstitious, 
and  often  barbarous  rites  practiced  by  the  heathen  for  lus- 
trations. There  was  a  washing  of  the  whole  body,  used  at 
the  .admission  of  Jewish  proselytes  in  later  times,  and  in 
some  ablutions  commanded  by  the  law.  There  was  also  a 
pouring  of  water  on  the  feet  and  hands,  or  sprinkling  it. 
Sometimes  the  water  was  mixed  v/ith  ashes  of  the  red 
heifer  mentioned  at  page  227.  In  the  solemn  sacrifices, 
sprinkling  the  blood  was  an  indispensable  ceremony,  typi- 
fying Christ's  shedding  his  blood  for  our  sins,  1  Pet.  i,  2. 
Also  anointing  with  oil  was  sometimes  used,  as  with  respect 
to  the  tabernacle  and  its  furniture,  Exod.  xxx,  26-28  ;  but 
the  anointing  was  more  frequently  used  in  consecrating  or 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  307 

setting  apart  to  an  office,  Exod.  xxviii,  41.  The  holy  oil, 
as  Mather  observes,  signified  the  Spirit  of  God ;  the  anoint- 
ing therewith,  the  communication  of  the  Spirit  in  the  saving 
graces,  and  in  the  Divine  joys  and  consolations  of  it.  Also 
the  anointing  of  the  priests  signified  the  anointing  of  Jesus 
Christ  with  the  Spirit  beyond  measure,  Psa.  xlv,  7 ;  John 
iii,  34.  This  is  called  the  resting  of  the  Spirit  upon  him, 
Isa.  xi,  2. 

We  need  not  go  into  the  details  of  the  numerous  cases 
in  which  washing,  pouring,  and  sprinkling  of  water  were 
enjoined.  They  all  intimated  the  necessity  of  purity  in 
heart  and  life,  without  which  God  could  not  be  approached 
acceptably,  either  in  public  or  private  devotions.  These 
observances,  also,  were  conducive  to  the  general  health  ;  in- 
deed we  everywhere  find,  that  attention  to  the  Divine  pre- 
cepts profits  the  body  as  well  as  the  soul.  "" 

The  custom  of  washing  the  hands  before  and  after  meals 
has  always  prevailed  in  the  East ;  it  is  the  more  necessary 
from  the  custom  of  eating  without  knives,  or  forks,  or 
spoons,  or  even  the  chopsticks  used  by  the  Chinese.  But 
in  this  simple  washing,  as  in  many  other  matters,  the  later 
Jews  added  superstitious  and  burdensome  observances  to 
the  customs  of  their  forefathers,  and  the  plain  directions  of 
the  law.  Our  blessed  Lord  condemns  the  extent  to  which 
the  Pharisees  carried  these  requirements.  There  was  to  be 
a  certain  quantity  of  water  used,  and  the  hands  and  arms 
must  be  washed  in  a  certain  manner,  and  to  a  certain  height ; 
and  this  repeated,  if  not  done  at  first  exactly  as  was  cus- 
tomary. Again,  for  some  sorts  of  food  more  washings  were 
required  than  for  others  :  before  bread  was  eaten,  the  hands 
must  be  washed  with  care,  but  dry  fruits  might  be  eaten 
with  unwashen  hands.  Many  directions  were  given  on  these 
subjects  by  the  Jewish  doctors,  and  these  caused  our  Lord's 
dispute  with  the  scribes  and  Pharisees,  Mark  vii,  2-8.  This 
law  was  even  made  a  hindrance  to  the  reading  of  the  Bible. 
If  a  person,  otherwise  clean,  touched  any  part,  of  the  Scrip- 
tiires,  he  might  not  eat  till  he  washed  his  hands.  The 
reason  assigned  for  this  was,  that  possibly  the  books,  which 
often  had  been  laid  up  in  secret,  might  have  been  gnawed 
by  mice !  Surely  this  prohibition  plainly  shows  what  spirit 
dictated  such  rules. 

So  scrupulous  were  the  Pharisees  as  to  these  purifica- 


308  JEWISH  NATION. 

tions,  that  the  Jewish  writers  relate  a  story  of  a  certain 
rabbi,  who  was  imprisoned  in  a  dungeon  with  a  scanty  al- 
lowance of  food  and  water.  One  day,  a  part  of  the  water 
being  accidentally  spilled,  he  chose  to  use  the  small  quantity 
that  remained  for  his  washings,  at  the  hazard  of  perishing 
from  thirst,  rather  than  to  drink  what  was  left,  and  omit  his 
usual  purifications.  Well  might  these  observances  be  cha- 
racterized as  a  yoke  too  heavy  to  be  borne.  These  "divers 
washings"  the  apostle  Paul  mentions  among  other  cere- 
monial rites  to  which  the  Jews  clung  with  extreme  per- 
tinacity. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

THE  SABBATICAL  YEAR — THE  JUBILEE — THE  NEW 
MOONS. 

The  Sabbatical  year  was  an  ordinance  in  the  law  given  by 
Moses,  and  had  reference  to  the  institution  of  the  Sabbath. 
As  the  Sabbath  of  the  seventh  day  was  a  day  of  rest  for 
man  and  beast,  so  the  Sabbatical  year  was  a  time  of  rest 
for  the  land,  which,  during  every  seventh  year,  was  to  lie 
fallow,  or  remain  uncultivated.  What  was  produced  with- 
out tillage  or  pruning  was  to  be  left  common  for  all,  espe- 
cially for  the  poor  and  for  the  cattle,  Exod,  xxiii,  1 1  ;  Lev. 
XXV,  1-22.  But  the  Jews  were  not  to  pass  their  time  in 
idleness  during  this  year.  They  could  fish,  and  pursue  the 
wild  beasts,  repair  their  buildings  and  furniture,  and  carry 
on  manufactures  and  commerce.  They  also  were  more  em- 
ployed in  devotional  services  this  year,  when  the  whole  law 
was  to  be  pubhcly  read,  Deut.  xxxi,  10-13.  To  prevent 
any  suffering  from  famine,  in  consequence  of  this  adherence 
to  the  Divine  command,  God  promised  an  unusual  supply 
every  sixth  year.  This  remarkable  institution  was  a  trial 
of  the  faith  of  the  Jews,  and  of  their  reliance  on  a  particu- 
lar Providence,  and  it  was  a  special  mark  of  that  govern- 
ment under  which  the  Israelites  were  placed  when  they 
settled  in  the  promised  land ;  a  government  which  acknow- 
ledged the  Lord  for  their  King,  and  considered  him  as  pre- 
sent among  them  in  a  peculiar  manner.  It  created  and 
strengthened  a  sense  of  dependence  on  God,  and  charity 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  309 

towards  man,  reminding  them  that  Jehovah  was  Lord  of 
the  soil,  and  that  they  held  it  only  from  his  bounty.  In 
2  Chron.  xxxvi,  21,  the  neglect  of  this  law  is  mentioned 
particularly  among  the  national  sins  which  caused  the  cap- 
tivity ;  and  the  length  of  the  captivity,  seventy  years,  is 
stated  as  compensating  the  land,  by  giving  it  a  period  of 
rest  equal  to  that  during  which  the  Jews  had  defrauded  it 
of  its  Sabbaths.  If  we  calculate  by  the  whole  term  of  this 
period,  it  would  lead  us  to  conclude  that  the  observance  of 
the  Sabbatical  year  was  wholly  neglected  soon  after  the 
land  was  governed  by  kings.  Samuel,  indeed,  expressly 
told  the  people,  that  their  desire  for  a  king  was  a  direct 
renouncing  of  Jehovah  as  their  King  and  Ruler ;  and  we 
may  conclude,  that  all  institutions  which  especially  regard- 
ed the  Lord  as  their  immediate  Sovereign  would  then  be 
neglected.  Another  date,  however,  is  assigned  by  Prideaux. 
He  reckons  only  the  fifty-two  years  which  elapsed  between 
the  destruction  of  Jerusalem  and  the  return  of  the  Jews, 
during  which  period  the  land  was  wholly  desolated.  This 
gives  a  period  of  364  years,  and  goes  back  to  an  early  part 
of  the  reign  of  Asa. 

After  the  return  from  captivity  the  Sabbatical  years 
were  better  observed,  although  this  was  rendered  more 
difficult  by  the  insecurity  of  property,  and  the  foreign  tri- 
bute the  land  was  then  under.  However,  Josephus  men- 
tions, that  exemption  from  taxes  during  the  Sabbatical 
years  was  obtained  from  Alexander,  and  afterwards  from 
the  Roman  emperors. 

The  seventh  year  was  a  year  of  release  from  debts,  or  at 
least  they  were  not  then  to  be  collected ;  and  the  personal 
servitude  into  which  any  Hebrew  had  fallen  then  ended. 
The  laws  respecting  this  freedom  are  very  remarkable, 
showing  the  kind  and  merciful  spirit  of  the  Mosaic  law,  and 
taking  away  the  most  severe  features  of  the  slavery  at  that 
time  generally  prevalent.  Nothing  can  be  more  opposite 
in  spirit  than  the  servitude  permitted  to  exist  among  the 
Hebrews,  and  that  of  modem  slavery.  It  is  indeed  time 
that  every  nation,  professing  to  be  Christian,  should  follow 
the  example  of  England,  and  abohsh  that  slavery  which  is 
among  the  worst  remains  of  heathenism,  and  which  espe- 
cially is  opposed  to  every  principle  of  the  New  Testament. 

It  is  not  quite  cei-tain  whether  servitude  among  the  Jews 


310  JEWISH   NATION. 

ended  in  every  Sabbatical  year,  or  whether  the  service  ter- 
minated at  the  end  of  six  years  from  its  commencement. 
But'  an  express  law  directed  that  servants  should  not  be 
sent  away  without  some  provision  from  the  produce  of  the 
soil,  or  the  cattle  they  had  assisted  to  raise ;  and  another 
law,  providing  for  the  continuance  of  their  servitude  during 
life,  if  such  was  their  own  wish,  further  shows  that  the 
bondage  was  not  intended  to  be  bitter  or  severe.  The  re- 
markable laws  respecting  this  servitude,  and  the  release 
from  it,  will  be  found  in  Exod.  xxi ;  Lev.  xxv ;  Deut.  xv ; 
and  the  reader  is  particularly  recommended  to  examine 
these  passages  carefully.  It  has  been  well  asked.  Could 
there  be  an  infidel  in  such  a  land,  or  a  sinner  against  God 
and  his' own  soul,  with  such  proofs  before  his  eyes  of  God 
and  his  attributes,  as  one  Sabbatical  year  afibrded  ? 

The  "  solemnity  of  the  year  of  release  "  was  marked  at 
its  conclusion  by  the  public  reading  of  the  law,  from  a  kind 
of  pulpit  in  the  court  of  the  women,  during  the  feast  of 
tabernacles.  The  Jewish  traditions  relate  the  ceremonial 
with  which  this  was  accompanied ;  and  that,  in  the  later 
times,  the  whole  law  was  n'ot  read  by  the  ruler,  but  the 
following  portions:  Deut.  i  to  vi,  4  ;  xi,  13-22;  xiv,  22 ; 
xxix,  2.  Seven  prayers  were  then  recited.  It  is  related, 
that  when  Agrippa  read  the  passage,  Deut.  xvii,  15,  forbid- 
ding the  setting  a  stranger  as  king  over  the  people,  his  eyes 
were  filled  with  tears  on  remembering  that  he  was  of  Gen- 
tile extraction,  but  the  people  comforted  him,  calling  out 
that  he  was  their  brother. 

The  year  of  jubilee  was  connected  with  the  Sabbatical 
year.  It  was  celebrated  every  fiftieth  year,  and  was  to  be 
observed  by  letting  the  land  rest  in  that  year  also ;  conse- 
quently, at  the  jubilee  there  would  be  two  years  following, 
in  which  the  people  would  depend  for  support  upon  the 
especial  provision  promised  by  Divine  Providence,  Lev. 
xxv,  20-22.  The  only  passage  of  Scripture  which  is  sup- 
posed to  refer  to  this  provision,  is  2  Kings  xix,  *29. 

The  year  of  jubilee  began  on  the  day  of  expiation,  and 
was  notified  by  the  solemn  sounding  of  trumpets  through- 
out the  land ;  whence  some  suppose  the  name  of  jubilee  is 
derived  ;  others  consider  that  the  word  denotes,  "  to  bring 
back,"  or  "  liberty."  The  Jews  on  the  coast  of  Malabai* 
tuld  Buchanan,  that  when  their  fathers  settled  in  that  land, 


LAWS  AND  POLITY. 


311 


after  the  destruction  of  the  second  temple,  they  brought 
with  them  the  two  silver  trumpets  used  at  the  jubilee. 
There  were  two  such  trumpets  kept  in  most  of  the  con- 
siderable towns  of  Judea.  In  this  year  all  lands  or  houses 
in  the  country,  which  had  been  sold  or  ahenated,  were  to 
be  returned  to  the  famihes  that  originally  possessed  them : 


PROCLAIMING   THE  JUBILEE. 

a  provision  evidently  intended  to  preserve  that  middle  state, 
as  to  property,  which  is  most  conducive  to  human  happi- 
ness. Ezekiel  xlvi,  16-18,  extends  this  to  royal  grants.  In 
this  year,  also,  all  the  poor  Israelites,  who,  although  not 
sold  as  slaves,  had  engaged  themselves  and  their  families  as 
servants,  returned  into  the  possession  of  their  paternal  in- 
heritance. Never  was  there  any  people  so  secured  as  the 
Israelites,  both  as  to  their  property  and  as  to  their  personal 
liberty. 

It  has  been  well  observed,  that  no  lawgiver  would  have 
ventured  to  propose  such  laws,  had  there  not  been  the 
fullest  conviction,  on  his  own  part  and  that  of  the  people, 
that  a  peculiar  Providence  would  facilitate  their  execution. 
And  it  was  the  want  of  faith  in  that  peculiar  Providence, 


312  JEWISH  NATION. 

which  led  to  the  neglect  of  this  solemn  observance,  and 
consequently  to  further  ruinous  evils. 

We  may  imagine  the  joy  which  would  re-echo  through 
the  land,  when,  on  the  evening  of  the  solemn  day  of  atone- 
ment, the  sound  of  the  silver  trumpet  was  heard  in  every 
town,  announcing  the  commencement  of  this  auspicious 
period.  How  beautiful  is  the  following  sketch,  of  one  of 
the  families  liberated  at  the  jubilee,  returning  to  their  pa- 
ternal home : — 

"  The  freedom-freighted  blast  through  all  the  land 
At  once  in  every  city,  echoing  rings  : — 
Free  is  the  bondman  now,  each  one  returns 
To  his  inheritance.    The  man  grown  old 
In  servitude  far  from  his  native  fields, 
Hastes  joyous  on  his  way  ;  no  hills  are  steep, 
Smooth  is  each  rugged  path  ;  his  little  ones 
Sport  as  they  go ;  while  oft  the  mother  chides 
Their  lingering  step,  lured  by  the  way-side  flowers. 
At  length  the  hill,  from  which  a  farewell  look, 
And  still  another  parting  look,  he  cast 
On  his  paternal  vale,  appears  in  view. 
The  summit  gain'd,  throbs  hard  his  heart  with  joy 
And  sorrow  blent,  to  see  that  vale  once  more. 
Instant  his  eager  eye  darts  to  the  roof 
Where  first  he  saw  the  light :  his  youngest  bom 
He  lifts,  and  pointing  to  the  much-loved  spot. 
Says,  '  There  thy  fathers  lived,  and  there  they  sleep.' 
Onward  he  goes,  near  and  more  near  he  draws  : 
How  sweet  the  tinkle  of  the  palm-bower'd  brook, 
The  sun-beam  slanting  through  the  cedar  grove  ! 
How  lovely  and  how  mild  !  but  lovelier  still 
The  welcome  in  the  eye  of  ancient  friends, 
Scarce  known  at  first :  and  dear  the  fig-tree  shade, 
'Neath  which  on  Sabbath  eve  his  father  told 
Of  Israel,  from  the  house  of  bondage  freed. 
Led  through  the  desert  to  the  promised  land. 
With  eager  arms  the  aged  stem  he  clasps. 
And  with  his  tears  the  furrow'd  bark  bedews  ; 
And  still,  at  midnight  hour,  he  thinks  he  hears 
The  blissful  sound  that  brake  the  bondman's  chains, 
The  glorious  peal  of  freedom  and  of  joy  !"— Grahame. 

Shall  not  we  consider  this  a  lively  emblem  of  the  gospel 
declaring  to  all  the  acceptable  year  of  the  Lord  ?  Isa. 
Ixi.  1,  2.  It  is  to  be  regretted  that  the  poet  just  quoted 
has  not  noticed  how  the  joy  of  a  believing  Israelite,  set  free 
by  the  jubilee,  would  be  heightened  by  the  remembrance 
that  his  liberation  was  introduced  by  the  day  of  expiation 
or  atonement,  in  which  freedom  from  spiritual  bondage  was 
both  sought  and  commemorated. 

"Jesus,  our  great  High  Priest, 

Hath  full  atonement  made  ; 
Ye  weary  spirits,  rest ; 

Ye  mournful  souls,  be  glad. 
The  year  of  jubilee  is  come  ! 
Return,  ye  ransom'd  sinners,  home  !" 


LAWS   AND   POLITY.  313 

Hales  considers  Luke  iv,  18,  19,  as  an  evidence  that  our 
Lord  began  his  public  ministry  in  a  year  of  jubilee. 

It  has  been  noticed,  that  the  Sabbatical  year,  and  the 
year  of  jubilee,  were  especially  institutions  of  mercy  to  the 
poorer  Israelites;  and  we  must  again  remark,  how  much 
consideration  towards  them  was  manifested  in  every  part 
of  the  Mosaic  law.  This  is  no  slight  proof  of  its  Divine 
origin.  Let  any  one  read  these  enactments,  or  only  refer 
to  the  passages,  Lev.  xiv,  21;  xix,  10,  15;  xxv,  25-47; 
Deut.  XV,  7-18,  and  say  whether  the  Divine  law  is  not  in- 
finitely superior  to  every  code  of  heathen  laws,  and  to  all 
the  counsels  of  pagan  philosophers.  Deut,  xv,  11,  is  a  very 
remarkable  passage.  All  the  provisions  of  the  Mosaic  law 
were  calculated  to  maintain  the  people  at  large  in  a  happy 
state,  being  neither  exalted  by  riches,  nor  ground  down  by 
poverty ;  yet  we  read  the  positive  declaration,  that  "  the 
poor  shall  never  cease  out  of  the  land,"  accompanied  with 
the  plain  precept,  "  Tlierefore  I  command  thee,  saying. 
Thou  shalt  open  thine  hand  wide  unto  thy  brother,  to  thy 
poor,  and  to  thy  needy,  in  thy  land."  Is  it  not  evident, 
that  the  constant  occasions  that  exist  for  the  exercise  of » 
charity  to  the  poor,  are  designed  that  our  hearts  should  not 
gi'ow  cold,  nor  be  hardened  to  any  of  our  Christian  affec- 
tions and  duties?  The  text,  Prov.  xiv,  31,  contains  a 
striking  warning  :  "  He  that  oppresseth  the  poor  reproach- 
eth  his  Maker :  but  he  that  honoreth  him  hath  mercy  on 
the  poor." 

For  particulars  concerning  the  festival  of  the  new  moon, 
and  of  the  feast  of  trumpets,  see  pp.  261-263. 


CHAPTER  VII. 
INTRODUCTORY  REMARKS  ON  THE  MORAL  LAWS. 

The  moral  laws  were  declared  in  the  ten  commandments, 
which  were  solemnly  delivered  from  Mount  Sinai,  as  re- 
corded in  the  twentieth  chapter  of  Exodus,  under  the  cir- 
cumstances there  mentioned,  and  which  are  noticed  in  the 
"Journeys  of  the  Children  of  Israel."  These  laws  were 
given  in  a  clear  and  permanent  form;  not  only  declared 
14 


314  JEWISH  NATION. 

aloud,  as  with  the  voice  of  the  trumpet,  but  twice  written 
by  the  finger  of  God  on  tables  of  stone,  which  were  care- 
fully preserved  in  the  ark.  How  different  this  from  the 
vagueness  and  uncertainty  of  tradition !  Surely  then  these 
commandments  must  contain  a  summary  of  all  our  duties 
to  God  and  man !  Accordingly  we  shall  find  that  the  other 
mora]  enactments  may  all  be  referred  to  one  or  other  of 
these  ten  commandments,  and  are  quite  consistent  with 
them  ;  not  like  the  writings  of  the  Jewish  rabbins,  often 
contradictory,  and  always  superfluous. 

When  our  blessed  Lord  was  upon  earth,  though  he  set 
aside  the  Jewish  traditions,  condemning  them  in  the  strong- 
est terms,  he  declared  that  he  came  not  to  destroy  the  law, 
but  to  fulfill  it.  Matt,  v,  18.  To  the  moral  law  therefore 
all  may  be  referred,  as  expressed  by  our  Saviour  in  these 
words,  Mark  xii,  29-33:  "Thou  shalt  love  the  Lord  thy 
God  with  all  thy  heart,  and  with  all  thy  soul,  and  with  all 
thy  mind,  and  with  all  thy  strength ;"  thus  comprehending 
the  first  four  commandments,  or  the  first  table,  and  adding, 
"  Thou  shalt  love  thy  neighbor  as  thyself ;"  thus  including 
^lie  second  table,  or  the  last  six. 

The  moral  law  was  not  only  given  to  the  Israelites  from 
Mount  Sinai,  but  it  was  repeated  to  their  children  thirty- 
eight  years  later,  in  the  plains  of  Jordan,  when  about  to 
enter  the  promised  land.  On  this  latter  occasion  it  was 
sanctioned  by  a  solemn  recapitulation  of  all  the  mercies 
they  had  experienced  in  the  wilderness.  Some  variations 
were  made,  but  none  of  material  import.  The  fourth  com- 
mand, for  the  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  is  enforced  by  an 
additional  motive,  their  redemption  from  Egypt,  Deut. 
V,  15,  which  was  typical  of  the  behever's  redemption  by 
Christ,  and  therefore  furnished  to  Christians,  as  well  as  to 
the  ancient  Jew,  an  additional  motive  for  the  duty  and  pri- 
vilege of  the  observance  of  the  holy  day,  as  well  as  an  ad- 
ditional consideration  for  allowing  to  servants  the  needful 
Sabbath  rest,  of  which  many  without  thought,  and  others 
with  atheistic  indifference,  deprive  them.  To  the  fifth  com- 
mand is  also  added  a  motive,  "  As  the  Lord  thy  God  hath 
commanded  thee,"  and  an  additional  promise,  "  that  it  may 
go  well  with  thee,"  Deut.  v,  16.  To  this  St.  Paul  refers, 
Eph.  vi,  3. 

Now,  all  these  commands  are  holy,  just,  and  good.     Their 


LAWS   AND   POLITY.  315 

observance  tends  to  promote  the  glory  of  God  and  the  hap- 
piness of  men.  If  mankind  were  guided  by  the  principles 
here  plainly  laid  down,  the  world  would  present  a  widely 
different  scene  from  that  which  at  present  it  displays.  But 
though  the  way  of  holiness  and  happiness  is  plainly  set  be- 
fore men,  yet  they  will  not  walk  therein,  unless  renewed 
in  the  spirit  of  their  minds,  being  born  again  by  the  Holy 
Spirit,  as  our  Lord  fully  showed  to  Nicodemus.  Even  the 
renewed  man  is  continually  prone  to  depart  from  the  ways 
of  peace,  and  to  forget  his  main  principles  of  action.  It  is 
the  great  regret  of  the  believer,  that  his  corrupt  nature  still 
hinders  him  from  keeping  the  law,  Romans  vii,  23.  He 
that  offends  in  one  point  is  guilty  of  all,  and  therefore  the 
most  exalted  Christian  daily  needs  to  throw  himself  on  the 
mercy  of  God  in  Christ.  Thus  the  law  is  our  schoolmaster, 
Gal.  iii,  24.  And  while  these  spiritual  benefits  flow  fmm 
the  Divine  laAv,  even  on  earthly  principles  there  is  great  re- 
ward in  keeping  the  commands  of  God.  Here  the  expe- 
rience of  all  classes  of  persons  might  be  referred  to,  as 
showing  that  there  is  no  peace  to  the  wicked,  who  oppose 
these  laws.  Men  need  not  only  the  general  precept  ad- 
dressed to  all,  and  also  the  voice  of  conscience  speaking 
within  each  individual,  but,  alas !  the  former  is  continually 
lost  sight  of,  and  the  latter  often  silenced.  Thus  there  is 
need  for  permanent  and  public  directions  to  commimities  at 
large,  upon  which  they  may  be  required  to  act,  so  that 
rulers  may  be  a  "  terror"  to  the  evil  doer,  and  give  praise  to 
those  that  do  well.  These  are  statute  laws ;  express  direc- 
tions and  full  explanations  of  what  is  right  and  wrong.  The 
need  of  these  clearly  appears ;  for  the  Lord,  after  giving 
the  ten  commandments,  immediately  followed  them  by 
statutes  and  judgments,  and  instituted  a  regular  ofiicial  ad- 
ministration for  their  establishment  and  enforcement. 

In  conformity  with  this  example,  in  later  ages,  under  the 
changed  and  changing  circumstances  of  the  nation,  addi- 
tional laws  and  regulations  were  made ;  and,  in  like  manner, 
in  other  nations,  a  continual  succession  of  enactments  is 
requisite ;  yet  all  should  be  in  conformity  to  the  two  great 
principles  of  the  moral  law.  The  Pharisees  departed  griev- 
ously from  this  perfect  rule ;  consequently  our  blessed  Lord 
charges  them  with  making  void  the  law  of  God,  and  de- 
nounces a  woe  upon  them  as  rulers,  for  laying  burdens  upon 


316  JEWISH   NATION. 

others  which  they  would  not  themselves  bear,  thus  at  once 
refusing  to  do  unto  others  as  they  would  themselves  desire 
to  be  done  unto.  Let  us  then  remember  the  great  prin- 
ciples of  the  moral  law,  as  the  standard  by  which  every 
minor  and  more  detached  rule  should  be  tried.  It  was  in 
the  neglect  of  these  that  Israel  sinned  and  fell. 

"  Their  glory  faded,  and  their  race  dispersed, 
The  last  of  nations  now,  though  once  the  first ; 
They  warn  and  teach  the  proudest,  would  they  learn, 
Keep  wisdom, — or  meet  vengeance  in  your  turn." 

The  first  announcement  of  the  moral  law  was  preceded 
by  a  brief  reference  to  the  providential  dealings  of  the 
Almighty,  proving  that  he  is  a  God  of  love,  and  that  all 
his  paths  are  mercy  and  truth  unto  such  as  keep  his  cove- 
nant and  his  testimonies.  "  Ye  have  seen,"  he  said,  "  what 
I  did  unto  the  Egyptians,  and  how  I  bare  you  on  eagles' 
wings,  and  brought  you  unto  myself,"  Exod.  xix,  4.  This 
comparison  would  probably  remind  the  Israelites  of  scenes 
that  they  had  witnessed  in  the  deserts  of  Arabia.  It  is 
more  fully  alluded  to  by  Moses  in  Deut.  xxxii,  11,  12. 

Thus  Jesus,  the  Lawgiver,  has  now  left  his  people  an  ex- 
ample in  his  own  fulfillment  of  all  righteousness,  and  his  con- 
cern for  them  is  repeatedly  described  under  similar  figures ; 
Isa.  xlvi,  3,  4 ;  Heb.  xii,  1,  2. 

A  late  writer  has  remarked,  that  the  actions  of  our  bless- 
ed Lord,  when  upon  earth,  may  be  divided  into  three  dis- 
tinct classes :  1 .  The  things  which  he  did,  as  God,  in  which 
it  would  be  presumption  to  think  of  imitating  him.  2.  Those 
which  had  reference  to  the  climate  and  customs  of  the 
country  in  which  he  was,  and  which  would  be  unsuitable 
for  general  imitation ;  and,  3.  Those  in  which  he  left  us  an 
example  that  we  should  follow  his  steps,  as  showing  our 
duty  both  towards  God  and  man.  So  the  same  distinctions 
have  also  been  applied  to  the  moral  regulations  by  which 
the  Jewish  state  was  to  be  governed.  Here  are,  1.  Laws 
connected  with  the  Theocracy,  or  the  immediate  govern- 
ment of  God,  by  which  they  were  distinguished  from  other 
nations,  and  which  it  would  be  presumption  to  apply  else- 
where ;  and,  2.  Laws  referring  to  the  time  and  place  in 
which  they  were  enacted,  which  would  be  unsuitable  else- 
where. 3.  There  are  also  laws  connected  with  the  general 
principles  of  morality  and  religion,  which  are  binding  on 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  317 

all  mankind ;  and  from  considering  them,  much  instruction 
may  be  derived,  that  is  suitable  for  every  age  and  every 
cUmate. 

It  is  pleasing  to  observe,  that  the  lately  christianized 
islanders  of  the  South  Seas  have  frequently  referred  to  -the 
rules  and  principles  of  Scripture  in  the  formation  of  their 
own  laws.  Thus  it  is  related  that,  in  1832,  the  Queen  of 
Raiatea,  when  consulted  by  the  representatives  of  her  sub- 
jects, as  to  whether  the  introduction  and  sale  of  ardent 
spirits  should  be  allowed  in  her  dominions,  sent  to  them  a 
copy  of  the  New  Testament,  wdth  a  message,  "  Let  the 
principles  contained  in  that  book  be  the  foundation  of  all 
your  proceedings,"  and  the  result  was,  the  prohibition  of  in- 
toxicating liquors.  Might  it  not  be  said  that  this  *'  queen 
of  the  south  shall  rise  up  in  judgment"  with  many  who  have 
had  greater  advantages,  yet  do  not  show  the  same  regard 
to  the  injunctions  of  Scripture,  by  using  endeavors  to  deter 
those  under  their  influence  from 

*'  The  road  that  leads  from  competence  and  peace 
To  indigence  and  rapine  ;  till  at  last 
Society,  grown  weary  of  the  load, 
Shakes  her  encumber'd  lap,  and  casts  them  out." 

And  it  is  impossible  to  state  the  benefits  which  have 
been  derived  even  from  the  outward  observance  of  the  laws 
given  by  God  to  man,  or  the  sin  and  danger  of  those  who 
slight  and  reject  these  benefits,  and  turn  after  things  that 
cannot  profit,  saying,  like  Israel  of  old,  We  will  be  as  the 
heathen  families  of  the  countries,  that  serve  wood  and  stone, 
Ezek.  XX,  32.  And  this  is  the  condemnation,  that  light  is 
come  into  the  world,  and  men  loved  darkness  rather  than 
light,  because  their  deeds  were  evil ;  for  every  one  that 
doeth  evil  hateth  the  light,  neither  cometh  to  the  light,  lest 
his  deeds  should  be  reproved,  John  iii,  19,  20.  How  fear- 
ful is  the  responsibility  of  those  who  thus  slight  the  privi- 
leges they  enjoy,  as  the  words  of  St.  Paul  in  Romans  ii 
most  plainly  testify ! 


318 


JEWISH   NATION. 


TABLE 

OF  THE 

JEWISH  MORAL  AND  POLITICAL  LAWS. 


The  Moral  Law,  written  on  Two  Tables,  containing 
THE  Ten  Commandments. 


The  first  Table,  which  includes 

The  first  commandment 

The  second  commandment 

The  third  commandment 

The  fourth  commandment 

The  Second  Table,  including 

The  fifth  commandment 

The  sixth  commandment 

The  seventh  commandment. . . 

The  eighth  commandment 

The  ninth  commandment 

The  tenth  commandment 

The  sum  of  both  tables 


Exodus. 

Leviticus. 

Numbers. 

chap. 

chap. 

chap. 

chap. 

20. 13. 



_ 

5,6. 

20.  23.  34. 

19.  26.  18. 



4-8.  10-13. 

20.  23. 

5. 

20.  23.  3L 
34.  35. 

19.  23.  26. 

!  - 

20.  22. 

19. 

5. 

20. 

19. 



5. 

20. 

18. 19. 



5.23. 

20.  22. 

19. 



5. 

20.  23. 

19. 

_ 

5. 

20. 

— 



5. 

— 

19. 

— 

6. 

The  Political  Law. 


The  Political  Laws  of  the  Israelites  are  referred  to  both  the  Tables,  and  are  to 
be  reduced  to  the  several  precepts  of  the  Moral  Law. 


Laws  referred  to  the  First  Table, 
namely,  1.  to  the  First  and  Second 
commandments,  viz. 

Of  idolaters  and  apostates 

Of  abolishing  idolatry 

Of  diviners  and  false  prophets 

Of  covenants  with  other  gods 

2.  To  the  third  commandment,  viz. 
Of  blasphemies 

3.  To  the  fourth  commandment,  viz. 
Of  breaking  the  Sabbath 

Political  Laws  referred  to  the  Se- 
cond Table. 

1.  To  the  fifth  commandment,  viz. 
Of  magistrates  and  their  authority. 
Of  the  power  of  fathers-. 

2.  To  the  sixth  commandment,  viz. 

Of  capital  punishments 

Of  willful  murder 

Of  manslaughter,  and  of  the  cities 

of  refuge 

Of  heinous  injury 

Of  punishments  not  capital 

Of  the  law  of  war , . 


Exodus, 
chap. 

Leviticus, 
chap. 

Numbers, 
chap. 

22. 
23.  24. 

22. 
23.  34. 

20. 
19,  20. 

- 

- 

24. 

15. 

31.  35. 

— 

15. 

18.  30. 
21. 

20. 

11. 

21. 

24. 

35. 

21. 
21. 

24. 

35. 

— 

_ 

— 

Deuteron. 
chap. 

13.  17. 

7.  12. 
18 

7. 


16.  17.  23, 
21. 


21.  24. 


19.  21,  22. 

25. 

25. 

20.  23. 


LAWS  AND  POLITY. 


S19 


3.  To  the  seventh  commandment,  viz. 

Of  unlawful  marriages 

Of  fornication 

Of  whoredom 

Of  adultery  and  jealousy 

Of  copulation  against  nature 

Of  divorcements 

Other  matrimonial  laws 

4.  To  the  eighth  commandment,  viz. 

Of  the  punishment  of  theff 

Of  sacrilege (Josh,  vii ) 

Of  not  injuring  strangers 

Of  not  defrauding  hirelings 

Of  just  weights 

Of  removing  the  land-mark 

Of  lost  goods 

Of  stray  cattle 

Of  corrupted  judgments 

Of  fire  breaking  out  by  chance 

Of  man-stealing 

Of  the  fugitive  servant 

Of  gathering  fruits 

Of  contracts,  viz. 

Borrowing 

Of  the  pledge 

Of  usury 

Of  selling 

Of  the  thing  lent 

Of  a  thing  committed  to  be  kept. . . 

Of  heirs 

5.  To  the  ninth  commandment,  viz. 
Of  witnesses 

The  establishing  the  political  law. . 

The  establishing  the  Divine  law  in  ) 

general  ) 

From  the  dignity  of  the  lawgiver. . . 

From  the  excellency  of  the  laws . . . 

From  the  promises | 

From  the  threateuings 


Exodus. 

Leviticus. 

Numbers. 

chap. 

chap. 

chap. 

_ 

18.  20. 



19. 



22. 

21. 

5. 

19,  20. 



22. 

18.  20. 

— 

— 

— 

— 

21. 

18.  20. 

- 

22. 



5. 



— 

— 

22.  23. 

]9. 

— 

19. 



_ 

19. 

— 



— 

— 

22. 

— 

— 

22,  23. 

— 



23. 

19. 

_ 

22. 

— 

— 

— 

— 

— 

_.. 

— 



- 

19.  23. 

— 

_ 

22. 

— 



22. 

25. 

— 

21. 

25. 



22. 

— 

— 

22. 

I 

26.  27.  33. 

-      1 
5. 

36. 

- 

- 

-  ) 

— 

19,  20.  22. 

15     j 



_ 

15.  19.23. 
24. 

j  18.  26. 

-      j 

23. 

26. 

-      j 

Deuterou. 
chap. 


24. 
21,  22. 
24,  25. 


10. 

26.  25. 

25. 

19. 

22. 
16.  24. 

24. 

23. 

23,  24. 


17.  19. 

4. 
6, 11.  29- 

31. 

5-8.  10. 

26,  27. 

4.26. 

4-7.10- 

12. 
4.  7.  11. 
27-30. 


320  JEWISH   NATION. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE   FIRST,    SECOND,    THIRD,    AND    FOURTH    COMMAND- 
MENTS. 

In  addition  to  the  ten  commandments,  which  are  given 
Exod.  XX,  1-17,  and  other  precepts  given  in  the  Books  of 
Exodus,  Leviticus,  and  Numbers,  the  Book  of  Deuteronomy- 
contains  a  repetition  of  most  of  the  Mosaic  laws,  and  often 
further  develops  the  principles  which  they  set  forth  and 
enforce.  These  enactments  have  been  classed  under  each 
of  the  ten  commandments,  selecting  that  to  which  they 
most  appropriately  belong,  according  to  the  index  annexed 
pages  318,  319,  which  is  taken  from  one  that  was  printed 
nearly  200  years  ago,  from  a  manuscript  in  the  library  of 
St.  John's  College,  Oxford.  Some  explanatory  remarks 
will  now  be  given  upon  each  of  the  commandments,  in 
their  order. 

THE  FIRST  COMMANDMENT. 

In  Exod.  XX,  3. — Thou  shalt        InDeut.v,  7. — Thou  shalt  have 
have  no  other  gods  before  me.         none  other  gods  before  me. 

Idolatry  was  the  most  heinous  crime  among  the  Jews ;  it 
was  not  only  a  sin  against  the  only  living  and  true  God, 
but  it  was  also  high  treason  against  their  chief  Ruler. 
This  principle  is  laid  down  in  the  first  commandment ;  the 
second  forbids  all  outward  demonstrations  or  actions  that 
are  idolatrous.  Here  is  included  all  worshiping  of  images, 
whether  intended  (1)  to  represent  the  true  God  in  a  visible 
form,  or  the  images  of  the  gods  of  the  Gentiles,  which 
either  were  (2)  of  Satan  under  various  forms,  or  (3)  of  men, 
usually  after  their  decease,  who  were  noted  for  something 
which  the  world  approves,  though  often  very  contrary  to 
the  Divine  commands,  and  (4)  representations  of  the  hea- 
venly bodies  or  other  objects  of  nature.  The  worship  of 
the  golden  calf  (Exod.  xxxii)  was  of  the  first  sort,  and  there 
are  other  instances  in  their  history  after  the  Jews  were 
settled  in  the  land  of  Canaan,  but  especially  the  calves  of 
Jeroboam,  1  Kings  xii,  26-31.  The  image  of  Baal,  (2  Kings 
lii,  2  and  5f,  27,)  and  those  mentioned  so  often  in  the  his- 


LAWS  AND  POLITY,  321 

torical  and  prophetic  books,  were  of  the  other  classes.  All 
such  idolatry  is  expressly  forbidden,  Exod.  xxxiv,  14,  and 
in  detail,  Deut.  iv,  16-19;  viii,  19. 

These  precepts,  it  will  be  seen,  extend  to  the  worship  of 
anything  besides  the  true  Lord  God,  although  without  an 
image :  such  worship  usually  consisted  of,  or  was  accom- 
panied by,  falhng  prostrate  to  the  earth,  or  at  least  bowing 
or  kneeling,  Exod.  xxiii,  24  ;  Lev.  xxvi,  1 ;  2  Kings  v,  18. 
In  the  Book  of  Joshua  even  the  mention  of  false  gods  is 
forbidden,  Josh,  xxiii,  1. 

Not  only  were  images  and  the  worship  of  idols  or  other 
visible  objects  forbidden,  but  the  possessing  of  altars  or 
groves  dedicated  to  them :  these  were  to  be  cut  down  and 
destroyed,  Exod.  xxxiv,  13  ;  Deut.  vii,  5  ;  xii,  3.  There  are 
various  instances  of  carrying  this  command  into  execution 
in  the  historical  books,  as  Hezekiah,  2  Kings  xviii,  4 ; 
Asa,  2  Chron.  xiv,  3  ;  Jehoshaphat,  xvii,  6  ;  Josiah,  xxxiv,  7. 
The  grove,  or  anything  connected  with  the  idol  worship, 
was  to  be  utterly  destroyed,  lest  the  sight  of  it  should 
recall  the  use  foraierly  made  of  it,  or  there  should  be  some 
superstitious  feeling  about  it. 

All  sacrifices  of  animals,  except  as  oflferings  to  the  Lord, 
are  forbidden.  Lev.  xvii,  1-7.  The  most  dreadful  rite  of 
idolatrous  worship,  human  sacrifices,  is  expressly  forbid- 
den, so  as  to  show  that  the  heathen  practiced  it,  Lev.  xx, 
1-5  ;  Deut.  xii,  30,  31  ;  xviii,  10.  The  most  horrible,  that 
of  the  sacrificing  their  children,  was  not  to  be  allowed 
among  the  strangers  in  the  land,  Levit.  xx,  2 ;  nor  even  to 
be  mentioned.  The  Jews  were  not  to  be  present  at  the 
sacrifices  of  the  heathen,  lest  they  should  partake  of  them, 
Exod.  xxxiv,  15.  The  prohibition  to  offer  any  sacrifices, 
excepting  to  the  Lord  Jehovah,  is  strongly  stated,  Exod. 
xxii,  20. 

The  greatness  of  the  crime  of  idolatry  was  thus  fully 
pointed  out ;  the  punishment  was  death  by  stoning,  Lev. 
XX,  2  ;  in  this  case  death  was  instantly  to  follow  detection, 
Deut.  xiii,  10 ;  xvii,  5.  When  the  inhabitants  of  a  city 
had  gone  and  served  other  gods,  they  were  to  be  put  to 
death,  and  the  city,  with  all  belonging  to  them,  was  to  be 
utterly  destroyed,  Deut.  xiii,  12-1*7. 

Blasphemy  was  another  branch  of  the  crimes  forbidden 
by  this  command.     When  the  peculiar  state  of  Israel,  with 
14* 


322  JEWISH   NATION. 

the  favor  of  the  Lord  God  dwelling  visibly  among  them, 
is  considered,  it  will  be  seen  that  this  was  a  most  heinous 
crime,  a  denial  of  the  visible  operations  of  the  Most  High. 
A  special  instance  is  recorded  Lev.  xxiv,  10-16,  when  this 
law  was  enacted,  and  it  was  declared  to  extend  to  the 
stranger  as  well  as  to  those  born  in  the  land.  Naboth 
seems  to  have  been  put  to  death  under  a  false  accusation 
of  this  kind,  1  Kings  xxi,  10-13  ;  and  be  it  observed,  that 
to  bless  idols,  or  to  speak  of  them  as  gods,  was  blasphemy 
against  the  Most  High. 

Closely  connected  with  blasphemy,  indeed  a  branch  of 
that  crime,  was  that  of  false  prophecy.  A  false  prophet  was 
held  to  be  such,  and  was  to  be  stoned,  when  he  spoke  in 
the  name  of  false  gods,  without  entering  into  any  question 
whether  or  not  he  had  spoken  truly,  Deut.  xvii,  2-6.  And 
if  he  had  pretended  to  speak  in  the  name  of  the  true  God, 
still  he  was  liable  to  punishment  when  what  he  had  de- 
clared did  not  come  to  pass,  Deut.  xviii,  21,  22.  Surely 
the  principle  of  this  law  should  be  regarded  at  the  present 
time :  not,  indeed,  to  put  to  death  such  pretenders,  for  we 
live  under  a  different  dispensation ;  but  they  ought  to  be 
turned  away  from,  whether,  like  Irving,  they  have  once 
been  teachers  of  the  truth,  or,  like  Southcote  and  the  Mor- 
monite  Smith,  deceivers  and  cheats  from  the  beginning. 
Such  characters  are,  indeed,  enemies  to  the  truth;  they 
have  '*  spoken  to  turn  you  away  from  the  Lord  your  God," 
Deut.  xiii,  5. 

Even  those  who  were  not  thus  guilty,  yet  who  from  any 
circumstance  were  induced  to  declare  that  which  came  not 
to  pass,  were  by  no  means  guiltless,  Deut.  xviii,  20-22. 
Well  would  it  have  been  for  the  Church  in  every  age,  and 
also  at  the  present  day,  had  this  solemn  warning  been  kept 
more  fully  in  mind.  Let  us  also  remember,  that  this  is 
applicable  not  merely  to  declarations  of  future  events,  but 
to  every  word  that  is  spoken  in  the  name  of  the  Lord.  A 
more  solemn  office  cannot  easily  be  pointed  out,  and  the 
faithful  ministers  of  Christ,  in  every  age,  have  deeply  felt 
their  responsibility. 

Divination  is  another  branch  of  idolatry.  In  the  English 
translation  of  the  Bible,  this  is  spoken  of  under  the  name 
of  witchcraft.  It  is  not  to  be  supposed  that  the  common 
vulgar  idea  of  witches  and  witchcraft  is  here  meant.     A 


LAWS   AND   POLITY.  323 

more  gross  delusion  seldom  has  existed  than  that  which 
supposed  a  poor  helpless  old  woman,  however  cross,  or  ill- 
tempered,  or  wicked,  could  torment  the  cattle  and  children 
around  her,  or  that  she  rode  through  the  air  on  a  broom- 
stick, and  went  to  revel  with  the  devil  at  night,  effecting 
her  evil  purposes  through  "  a  familiar,"  as  it  was  called,  in 
the  shape  of  a  cat,  who  told  her  of  things  she  wished  to 
know.  Surely,  at  the  present  day,  such  nonsense  must 
have  passed  away,  and  poor  old  women  are  now,  for  the 
most  part,  allowed  to  sit  with  their  cats  in  peace.  It  is  to 
be  regretted  that  the  translators  of  the  Bible  were  led  to 
use  such  a  term,  although  at  that  time  even  King  James 
himself  beheved  in  witchcraft,  and  required  others  to  do 
the  same.  The  divination  and  witchcraft  meant  in  the 
Bible,  (Exod.  xxii,  18;  Lev.  xix,  26-31  ;  xx,  6-27;  Deut. 
xviii,  10,  11,)  is  a  more  serious  evil,  and  more  directly 
idolatrous,  as  well  as  diabolical.  The  Eastern  people  of 
old  were  very  prone  to  inquire  into  future  events.  Of 
course  the  worshipers  of  the  true  God  could  find  no  en- 
couragement for  such  a  system,  nor  did  they  need  it.  The 
patriarchs,  like  Abraham  of  old,  had  full  reliance  on  the 
Lord  their  God,  but  wicked  minds  wished  for  unlawful  in- 
formation, and  sought  it  from  the  votaries  and  priests  of 
false  gods.  All  these  false  worships  had  some  relation  to 
the  worship  of  Satan,  especially  that  of  the  serpent,  {Auh,  or 
Ob:)  to  make  these  inquiries,  therefore,  was  worshiping 
the  spirit  of  evil.  It  was,  as  Elijah  put  it  to  the  messengers 
of  Ahaziah,  (2  Kings  i,  3,  4,)  a  declaration  that  the  inquirer 
did  not  believe  in  the  God  of  Israel,  but  put  his  trust  in 
some  exhibition  of  Satan.  This  also  was  Saul's  last  offense, 
the  going  to  a  woman  described  as  having  a  familiar  spirit 
at  Endor,  1  Sam.  xxviii,  8.  She  was  not  what  our  fathers 
understood  by  "  witch  or  wizard,"  but  a  priestess  of  Ob, 
one  who  secretly  kept  up  the  serpent  worship  ;  that  which 
was  adoration  of  the  old  serpent,  the  devil.  And  we  know 
that  such  worship  exists  even  now  over  a  large  part  of  the 
globe.  What  is  called  Buddhism  is  especially  of  this  de- 
scription ;  it  prevails  over  a  large  portion  of  the  East,  so 
that,  awful  as  is  the  fact,  these  idolatrous  worshipers  ot 
Satan  even  now  are  far  more  numerous  than  all  the  nomi- 
nal worshipers  of  Christ,  or  those  of  the  followers  of  the 
false  prophet,  who  also  reject  idolatry,  commonly  so  called 


324  JEWISH  NATION. 

Can  there  be  anything  more  affecting  than  such  deplorable 
infatuation  and  degradation  ? 

The  priest  of  this  devil-worship,  or  diviner,  was  to  be 
put  to  death,  Lev.  xx,  27  ;  but  it  is  to  be  remembered  that 
God  reserved  to  himself  the  punishment  of  those  who  broke 
this  law  by  consulting  the  diviner.  A  striking  admonition 
against  the  sinful  practice  is  contained  in  Lev.  xx,  6 ;  Deut. 
xviii,  9-13.  The  fate  of  Saul  showed  that  these  commands 
were  not  to  be  disregarded  with  impunity,  1  Chron.  x,  13. 
The  folly  as  well  as  tlie  guilt  of  such  inquiries  is  exposed 
by  the  prophet,  Isa.  viii,  19  ;  xliv,  25  ;  xlvii,  13  ;  and  the 
impotence  and  helplessness  of  the  sorcerers  were  shown, 
both  in  Chaldea  and  Egypt, where  they  were  especially  re- 
garded, Exod.  viii,  19  ;  ix,  11 ;  Dan.  ii,  27,  28  ;  iv,  7.  A 
similar  failure  is  threatened  to  the  deceivers  in  later  times, 
2  Tim.  iii,  8,  9  ;  2  Pet.  ii,  1-3. 

The  prevalence  of  such  customs  among  the  heathens  is 
well  known,  Ezek.  xxi,  21.  Even  the  enlightened  Ephe- 
sians,  in  later  times,  used  curious  arts,  which  they  renounced 
on  receiving  the  gospel.  Acts  xix,  19.  The  sorcerers  who 
abused  their  powers  of  mind  to  deceive  the  ignorant,  like 
Elymas  (Acts  xiii,  6)  and  Simon,  (Acts  viii,  9,)  were  always 
strongly  opposed  to  the  preaching  of  the  word  of  God; 
and  the  Eastei-n  magicians,  in  later  times,  have  evinced 
a  similar  spirit  of  enmity,  being  well  aware  that  there  is 
no  agreement  between  the  true  God  and  idols ;  but  wher- 
ever the  Lord  comes  the  idols  are  moved  at  his  presence, 
Isa.  xix,  1  ;  even  as  Dagon  of  old  fell  before  the  ark  oi 
God.   1  Sam.  v,  3. 

THE  SECOND  COMMANDMENT. 

The  Second  Commandment  stands  almost  word  for  word 
m  Exod.  XX,  4-6,  and  Deut.  v,  8-10.  It  is  as  follows, — 
"  Thou  shalt  not  make  unto  thee  any  graven  image,  or  any 
likeness  of  anything  that  is  in  heaven  above,  or  that  is 
in  the  earth  beneath,  or  that  is  in  the  water  under  the 
earth  :  thou  shalt  not  bow  down  thyself  to  them,  nor 
serve  them :  for  I  the  Lord  thy  God  am  a  jealous  God, 
visiting  the  iniquity  of  the  fathers  upon  the  children  unto 
the  third  and  fourth  generation  of  them  that  hate  me ;  and 
showing  mercy  unto  thousands  of  them  that  love  me,  and 
keep  my  commandments." 


LAWS  AND   POLITY.  326 

Here  must  be  noticed  the  precepts  for  abolishing  idolatry, 
and  destroying  all  traces  of  it.  See  Exod.  xxiii,  24,  with 
the  fuller  explanation,  Deut.  vii,  25,  26.  The  whole  of  the 
latter  chapter  refers  to  the  subject,  as  does  also  Deut.  xii, 
2,  3.  These  directions  in  their  details  are  not  binding  on 
us  now,  but  surely  professed  Christians  should  be  more 
careful  on  this  subject  than  they  often  are.  There  is  far 
too  much  trifling  with  idolatrous  figures,  and  the  recognized 
symbols  of  idolatrous  worship,  Avhether  as  to  the  pictures 
and  statues  honored  by  the  ritual  of  the  Church  of  Rome, 
or  the  mythology  of  the  ancient  heathens,  from  which  the 
latter  have,  in  many  cases,  been  borrowed,  as  is  clear  to  all 
who  have  attentively  looked  into  the  subject.  The  Ashta- 
roth  of  the  Zidonians  and  Assyrians,  ( 1  Kings  xi,  5  ;  Judg. 
ii,  13,)  was  the  Yenus  of  Greece  and  Rome,  and  the  great 
Diana  of  the  Ephesians.  A  personification  of  the  whole 
frame  or  course  of  nature,  was  worshiped  in  still  earlier 
times  as  the  queen  of  heaven,  Jer.  vii,  18.  Many  of  their 
titles  and  attributes  were,  in  the  early  days  of  Popery, 
transferred  to  the  Virgin  Mary  !  and  the  celebrated  statue 
of  St.  Peter  at  Rome  is  in  fact  an  image  of  the  idol  Jupi- 
ter. Other  Romish  rites  and  festivals  have  their  origin  in 
paganism ;  but  the  subject  is  too  extensive  for  further  dis- 
cussion in  these  pages.  Perhaps  the  above  remarks  will 
suflficiently  show  how  contrary  it  must  be  to  the  principles 
of  the  second  commandment,  to  introduce  such  images 
into  buildings  set  apart  for  Christian  worship.  If  symboli- 
cal representations  are  required  there,  they  might  be  taken 
from  the  types  and  emblems  of  the  Bible,  as  Hervey  shows 
in  his  dialogue  between  Theron  and  Aspasio.  Here  may 
be  applied  the  caution  of  St.  Paul,  1  Cor.  x,  20,  21. 

Some  writers  have  given  particular  descriptions  of  the 
heathen  idols,  but  these  may  well  be  passed  over  with  a 
few  brief  remarks.  The  weeping  for  Tammuz,  (Ezek.  viii, 
14,)  was  an  idolatrous  custom  observed  in  the  month  of 
Thammuz,  or  June,  on  account  of  the  death  of  a  youth 
called  Adonis,  who  was  said  to  have  been  slain  by  a  wild 
boar,  and  the  most  impure  observances  were  joined  with  it. 
The  processions  and  ceremonies  used  by  idolaters  were 
very  numerous.  Both  the  worshipers  and  sacrificial  vic- 
tims appeared  with  garlands  of  flowers,  and  libations  or 
drink-offerings  were  poured  out  upon  them,  a  custom  to 


326  JEWISH  NATION. 

which  St.  Paul  alludes,  2  Tim.  iv,  6 ;  Phil,  ii,  11.  It  was 
impossible  to  mingle  with  the  heathen  without  learning 
some  of  their  works,  Psa.  cvi,  36-39 ;  Num.  xxv,  1,  2 ; 
1  Kings  xi,  1-8 ;  and  how  mercifully  it  was  ordered  by- 
God  that  the  Hebrew  nation  should  be  a  barrier  or  check 
to  the  prevalence  of  idol  worship,  which  otherwise  would 
have  overspread  the  world,  Rom.  i,  20-25.  In  reference 
to  this  sin  alone  does  God  describe  himself  as  jealous, 
Exod.  xxxiv,  14 ;  Isa.  xlii,  8 ;  and  in  the  warnings  which 
he  gave  to  his  servants  the  prophets,  he  compares  it  to 
adultery  and  whoredom,  so  as  to  set  forth  most  plainly 
its  extreme  guilt,  Ezek.  xvi,  15 ;  xx,  30  ;  Hos.  ii,  5-1. 
Many  other  quotations  might  be  added,  in  which  the  sin 
and  folly  of  idolaters  are  fully  described,  as  Isa.  xliv, 
12-20  ;  Psa.  cxv,  2-8.  We  read  of  Dagon,  the  god  of  the 
Phihstines,  which  was  a  figure  half  man  and  half  fish,  and 
probably  commemorated  the  tradition  of  Noah's  preserva- 
tion :  see  1  Sam.  v. 

The  conclusion  of  the  second  commandment  claims  atten- 
tion. It  was  afterwards  willfully  misapplied  by  the  Jews, 
Ezek.  xviii,  2.  Yet  Scripture  and  experience  clearly  prove 
that  they  who  turn  away  from  the  sins  of  their  parents, 
have  no  cause  to  fear,  Num.  xiv,  31  ;  though,  alas !  this  is 
seldom  found  to  be  the  case,  for  how  often, 

"  Train'd  by  bad  parents  in  an  evil  way, 
Children  grow  up  more  reprobate  than  they." 

And  the  evil  consequences  must  be  familiar  to  every  ob- 
servant mind.  A  few  of  the  most  striking  texts  which 
bear  on  this  point  may  be  mentioned  :  Gen.  ix,  25  ;  xiv,  16  ; 

1  Kings  xi,  36-38;  xv,  26-30  ;  xxi,  29 ;  2  Kings  xv,  12  ; 

2  Chron.  xxxvi,  14-16;  Ezra  ix,  14;  Zech.  i,  4;  Matt, 
xxiii,  35  ;  1  Thess.  ii,  16. 

THE  THIRD  COMMANDMENT. 

The  Third  Commandment  reads  the  same  in  Exodus  and 
Deuteronomy ;  "  Thou  shalt  not  take  the  name  of  the 
Lord  thy  God  in  vain ;  for  the  Lord  will  not  hold  him 
guiltless  that  taketh  his  name  in  vain,"  Deut.  v,  11  ; 
Exod.  XX,  9. 

This  commandment  includes  all  false  oaths,  and  vain  and 
profane  swearing.  Lev.  xix,  12.     There  are  many  instances 


LAWS   AND    POLITY.  327 

m  Scripture  of  solemn  oaths  being  administered  and  taken. 
Thus,  to  go  no  farther,  in  the  case  of  Rahab,  Josh,  ii,  17 ; 
and  the  Gibeonites,  Josh,  ix,  15;  and  the  oath  between 
David  and  Jonathan,  1  Sam.  xx,  3-17.  We  may  read  on 
this  subject  Deut.  vi,  13  ;  Psa.  Ixiii,  11  ;  Isa.  xlv,  23. 

Several  enactments  show  that  an  oath  was  to  be  regarded 
as  solemn  and  binding,  Lev.  v,  4  ;  Num.  xxx,  2 ;  and  there 
was  considerable  difficulty  felt  as  to  being  released  from  an 
oath  as  well  as  to  being  engaged  by  one,  if  it  was  unlaw- 
ful. Josh,  ix,  20;  Ezek.  xvii,  15.  As  for  the  wicked  oaths 
prevalent  in  later  days,  they  certainly  are  included  under 
profaning  the  name  of  the  Lord,  but  they  rather  may  be 
considered  as  blasphemies,  and  that  this  command  has  espe- 
cial reference  to  solemn  engagements  by  the  deliberate  and 
solemn  use  of  the  name  of  the  Lord.  In  all  the  apphca- 
tions  of  the  word  "  profane,"  to  the  name  of  the  Lord,  it  is 
evident  that  actions  are  meant  even  more  than  mere  words, 
as  Lev.  xx,  6 ;  xxi,  2. 

THE  FOURTH  COMMANDMENT. 

Exod.  XX,  8-11. — Remember  Deut.  v,  12-15. — Keep  the  Sab- 
the  Sabbath-day,  to  keep  it  holy,  bath-day  to  sanctify  it,  as  the  Lord 
Six  days  shalt  thou  labor,  and  do  thy  God  hath  commanded  thee, 
all  thy  work :  but  the  seventh  day  Six  days  thou  shalt  labor  and  do 
is  the  Sabbath  of  the  Lord  thy  all  thy  work :  but  the  seventh  day 
God  :  in  it  thou  shalt  not  do  any  is  the  Sabbath  of  the  Lord  thy 
work,  thou,  nor  thy  son,  nor  thy  God :  in  it  thou  shalt  not  do  any 
daughter,  thy  man-servant,  nor  work,  thou,  nor  thy  son,  nor  thy 
thy  maid-servant,  nor  thy  cattle,  daughter,  nor  thy  man-servant,  nor 
nor  thy  stranger  that  is  within  thy  thy  maid-servant,  nor  thine  ox, 
gates :  for  in  six  days  the  Lord  nor  thine  ass,  nor  any  of  thy  cat- 
made  heaven  and  earth,  the  sea,  tie,  nor  thy  stranger  thr.t  is  wiih- 
and  all  that  in  them  is,  and  rested  in  thy  gates  :  that  thy  man- 
the  seventh  day :  wherefore  the  servant  and  thy  maid-servant 
Lord  blessed  the  Sabbath-day  and  may  rest  as  well  as  thou.  And 
hallowed  it.  remember  that  thou  wast  a  ser- 

vant in  the  land  of  Egypt,  and 
that  the  Lord  thy  God  brought 
thee  out  thence  through  a  mighty 
hand  and  by  a  stretched-out  arm  : 
therefore  the  Lord  thy  God  com 
manded  thee  to  keep  the  Sabbath 
'  day. 

TherAj^re  also  many  other  passages  of  Scripture  which 
enjoin  fro  observance  of  this  institution,  which  was  not  firsi 
given  from  Mount  Sinai,  but  had  existed  from  the  creation 


328  JEWISH  NATION. 

Gen.  ii,  2,  3.  The  very  word  "  Remember,"  proves  that 
it  had  previously  existed,  and  therefore  this  command  is 
binding  on  all  men,  and  not  on  the  Jews  only.  The  fol- 
lowing texts  more  fully  point  out  the  duties  connected  with 
the  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  Exod.  xxiii,  1 2 ;  xxxi, 
13-17  ;  Lev.  xix,  3,  30;  xxiii,  3  ;  and  xxvi,  2  ;  Jer.  xvii, 
21-25  ;  Ezek.  xx,  12,  24 ;  Isa.  Ivi,  2,  4,  6  ;  and  Iviii,  13,  14  ; 
Neh.  xiii,  15-22  ;  and  show  thai  a  special  blessing  was 
promised  to  those  who  regarded  it.  In  many  other  works 
a  fuller  statement  has  been  given,  both  of  the  motives  for 
obedience  to  this  command,  and  of  the  manner  in  which  it 
was  misapplied  by  many  of  that  nation ;  and  the  subject 
must  not  here  be  overlooked,  for  it  is  a  point  on  which 
the  prosperity  of  individuals,  families,  and  nations  closely 
depends.  The  example  of  presumptuous  disobedience 
recorded  in  Numbers  xv,  35,  was  a  breach  of  this  com- 
mand. 

Christians  observe  the  first  day  of  the  week  for  their 
Sabbath,  in  remembrance  of  the  resurrection  of  their  Lord, 
(See  page.  260.)  But  if  the  time  be  altered,  the  spirit  and 
manner  in  which  it  is  to  be  kept,  even  as  holy  unto  the 
Lord,  must  remain  unchanged.  Rev.  i,  10  ;  and  where  this 
rule  is  practiced,  a  blessing  will  surely  follow.  Even  out- 
ward holiness  and  seriousness  will  produce  a  degree  of  peace 
and  comfort ;  but  still  more  blessed  are  they  who  are  ena- 
bled to  make  the  Lord's  day  "  a  kind  of  transfiguration 
day,"  as  it  has  been  beautifully  described,  "  shedding  a  mild 
glow  upon  every  object,  and  enabling  us  to  view  the  con- 
cerns of  time  in  connection  with  those  of  eternity." 

It  was  the  well-known  remark  of  one  of  the  greatest 
men  who  ever  filled  the  office  of  an  English  judge,  that  ac- 
cording to  his  observance  of  the  Sabbath,  he  found  his 
worldly  concerns  to  prosper  in  the  week  that  followed  ;* 
and  many  others,  of  every  grade  in  life,  have  rejoiced  with 
the  pious  statesman,  Wilberforce,  that  Sunday  was  their 

*  "  Though  my  hands  and  mind  have  been  as  full  of  secular  business,  both 
before  and  since  I  was  a  judge,  as  it  maybe  any  man's  in  England,  yet  I  never 
wanted  time  in  my  six  days  to  ripen  and  fit  myself  for  the  business  and  em- 
ployments I  had  to  do,  though  I  borrowed  not  one  minute  from  the  Lord's  day 
to  prepare  for  it  by  study,  or  otherwise.  But,  on  the  other  hand,  if  I  had  at  any 
time  borrowed  from  this  day  any  time  for  my  secular  emp]oyme|rt|.  I  found  it 
did  further  me  less  than  if  I  had  let  it  alone,  and,  therefore,  I  grjpPperempto 
rily  resolved  never  in  this  kind  to  make  a  breach  upon  the  Lor^s  day,  whick 
I  have  strictly  observed  for  above  thirty  years." — Sib  Matthew  Hale. 


LAWS    AND    POLITY.  329 

own,    which  they  could  spend    with   their   family,  when 
wearied 

"  With  six  days'  care,  and  noise,  and  strife." 


JEWISH  SABBATH  MEAL. 


**  It  is,"  says  a  writer  of  the  present  generation,  "  the  be- 
liever's day  of  rest  from  worldly  care,  and  of  holy  activity 
for  God  ;  in  it  he  has  to  study  truth,  which  he  had  too  little 
leisure  through  the  week  to  investigate.  He  has  to  read 
the  word  of  God,  with  which  he  might  never  otherwise  be- 
come familiar.  He  has  to  study  himself,  by  comparison  of 
his  tempers  and  conduct  with  the  law  of  God,  and  with  the 
Christian  character,  as  portrayed  in  the  Scriptures.  He 
has  to  learn,  from  week  to  week,  whether  he  is  retro- 
grading or  advancing  in  the  ways  of  God.  He  has  to  listen 
to  the  preaching  of  the  Gospel,  which  is  Christ's  ordinance, 
and  on  which  he  may  therefore  expect  a  blessing.  He  has 
to  meditate  on  that  which  he  has  read  or  heard,  and  then 
to  enlarge  his  knowledge,  or  deepen  his  impressions,  by 
Christian  conversation  with  others.  Alone,  in  his  family, 
and  with  the  Church,  he  has  to  ask  the  blessings,  which 
the  experiences  of  life,  with  devout  meditation,  have  made 
him  see  and  feel  to  be  necessary.  And  then  he  has 
to  bless  God  in  secret  for  unnumbered  mercies,  and  to 


330  JEWISH   NATION. 

join  his  praises  with  those  of  his  fellow- worshipers  in  the 
Church." 

The  same  author  adds,  "  It  seems  desirable  that  those 
who  desire  to  consecrate  the  Sabbath  to  God,  should  not 
be  ruined,  or  even  seriously  injured  in  their  property,  on 
that  account,  by  the  traffic  of  others  on  that  day,  in  a  coun- 
try professing  Christianity.  And  the  poor  man  should  have 
his  right  of  the  Christian  rest  of  the  seventh  day  secured  to 
him.  Still,  in  a  thousand  ways,  which  the  law  can  never 
touch,  may  the  unprincipled  and  profane  abuse  and  reject 
this  ordinance  of  God ;  and  when  they  do  so,  the  Sabbath, 
instead  of  a  blessing,  is  a  curse  to  them,  and  as  far  as  their 
influence  extends,  a  mischief  to  all." 

The  Sabbath  is  still  continued.  It  returns  at  the  end  of 
seven  days.  It  is  still  a  memorial  of  the  creation ;  but  the 
institution  is  enlarged  to  commemorate  also  the  work  of  re- 
demption ;  for  which  observance  the  first  day  of  the  week 
was  most  suitable,  after  the  resurrection  of  Christ.  The 
duty  and  blessing  are  stated  in  the  fourth  commandment  to 
apply,  not  to  the  seventh,  but  the  Sabbath  day.  The  118th 
Psalm  has  been  considered  to  contain  a  direct  prediction, 
that  the  day  of  Christ's  resurrection  was  to  be  the  day  on 
which  the  Sabbath  should  be  holden  under  the  Gospel. 
We  have  sufficient  evidence  from  the  New  Testament,  that 
the  first  day  of  the  week  was  observed  as  the  Christian 
Sabbath  by  the  apostles.  The  peculiar  blessings  which 
have  resulted  to  millions  of  souls  from  the  observance  of 
the  Lord's  day  as  the  Sabbath,  are  too  manifest  for  us  to 
hesitate  as  to  the  will  of  God  on  the  subject. 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  331 


CHAPTER  IX. 

DUTIES  TO  FELLOW- CREATURES,  OR   THE   FIFTH,  SIXTH, 
AND  SEVENTH  COMMANDMENTS. 

FIFTH   COMMANDMENT. 

In  Exod.  XX,  12. — Honor  thy  In  Deut.  v,  16. — Honor  thy 
father  and  thy  mother ;  that  thy  father  and  thy  mother,  as  the 
days  may  be  long  upon  the  land  Lord  thy  God  hath  commanded 
which  the  Lord  thy  God  giveth  thee ;  that  thy  days  may  be  pro- 
thee.  longed,  and  that  it  may  go  well 

with  thee,  in  the  land  which  the 
Lord  thy  God  giveth  thee. 

Thus  there  is  a  special  blessing  promised  to  the  keeping 
of  this  commandment,  an  outward  and  visible  blessing.  It 
has  been  frequently  remarked  that  the  fulfillment  of  this 
promise  has  been  very  observable  in  all  ages ;  that  where 
parents  have  been  honored  in  the  spirit,  as  well  as  in  the 
letter  of  the  command,  there  has  been  outward  prosperity 
remarkably  manifested  in  the  children.  It  is  necessary  to 
say,  in  the  spirit  as  well  as  in  the  letter,  for  more  is  requisite 
than  merely  caring  for  their  bodily  wants ;  this  often  may 
be  done  without  a  right  feeling  and  desire  to  act  according 
to  this  precept  in  its  full  extent. 

The  system  of  the  patriarclial  life  was  based  on  parental 
authority;  but  the  cases  of  Esau  and  the  sons  of  Jacob 
plainly  show,  that  then,  as  now,  something  more  than  cus- 
tomary observance  was  needed.  The  spirit,  therefore,  as 
well  as  the  letter  of  this  command,  was  impressed  upon  the 
Jewish  nation.  Not  only  striking  parents,  (Exod.  xxi,  15,) 
but  even  angry  and  irreverent  language  was  forbidden. 
The  cursing  of  parents  was  punishable  with  death,  Exod. 
xxi,  17  ;  Lev.  xx,  9.  Observe  in  the  first  of  these  passages, 
"  shall  surely  be  put  to  death  ;"  and  in  the  second  the  mar- 
ginal reading  for  "  cursed"  is  "  reviled."  Our  blessed  Lord 
chose  this  commandment  when  giving  an  instance  of  the 
manner  in  which  the  degenerate  Jews  of  his  days  upon 
earth  perverted  the  whole  scope  and  meaning  of  this  Divine 
precept,  Mark  vii,  10.  Michaelis  notices  that  our  Lord, 
when  exposing  their  wickedness,  expressly  referred  to  the 
law  of  Moses  on  the  subject,  and  that  this  act  was  cursing 


I 
332  JEWISH  NATION. 

the  parents  most  eflfectually,  not  by  mere  words  which  pass 
away,  "  but  it  is  a  fulfilling  of  the  curse,  and  making  it  to 
all  intents  and  purposes  effectual." 

Under  this  commandment  may  be  classed  the  law,  Deut. 
xxi,  18-21  :  "  If  a  man  have  a  stubborn  and  rebellious  son, 
which  will  not  obey  the  voice  of  his  father,  or  the  voice  of 
his  mother,  and  that,  when  they  have  chastened  him,  will 
not  hearken  unto  them :  Then  shall  his  father  and  his  mo- 
ther lay  hold  on  him,  and  bring  him  out  unto  the  elders  of 
his  city,  and  unto  the  gate  of  his  place ;  and  they  shall  say 
unto  the  elders  of  his  city.  This  our  son  is  stubborn  and 
rebellious,  he  will  not  obey  our  voice ;  he  is  a  glutton  and 
a  drunkard.  And  all  the  men  of  this  city  shall  stone  him 
with  stones,  that  he  die :  so  shalt  thou  put  evil  away  from 
among  you;  and  all  Israel  shall  hear,  and  fear."  Here 
should  be  noticed  the  express  mention  of  drunkenness,  as 
though  the  other  crimes  could  not  exist  without  that,  and 
shomng  that  then,  as  now,  drunkenness  leads  to  the  worst 
enonnities. 

Let  it  also  be  remembered  how  fully  the  Saviour  him- 
self, when  on  earth,  fulfilled  the  law  of  God  as  to  the  fifth 
commandment.  Whilst  a  child  he  was  subject  to  Joseph 
and  his  mother,  Luke  ii,  51.  In  his  after  life  he  submitted 
to  earthly  rulers,  and  his  apostles  have  left  plain  directions 
for  a  similar  course  of  conduct.  "  Children,  obey  your  pa- 
rents in  all  things :  for  this  is  well-pleasing  unto  the  Lord," 
Col.  iii,  20.  "  Submit  yourselves  to  every  ordinance  of  man 
for  the  Lord's  sake,"  1  Pet.  ii,  13. 

Reverence  to  those  in  authority  was  taught,  Deut.  xvii, 
8-13.  In  the  Theocracy  then  existing  the  priest  was  es- 
pecially authorized  to  declare  the  Divine  will  in  all  "  mat- 
ters too  hard  for  thee  in  judgment,"  where  the  recorded 
precepts  were  not  plainly  applicable ;  and  in  those  where 
"  the  sentence  of  the  law"  could  be  applied,  they  were  to 
listen  to  those  authorized  to  enforce  it.  Due  respect  to  them 
was  commanded,  Exod.  xxii,  28:  "Thou  shalt  not  revile 
the  gods,"  (margin,  judges,)  "  nor  curse  the  ruler  of  thy 
people."  Here,  as  in  Judg.  ix,  13,  and  some  other  places, 
the  word  "  god"  denotes  those  in  authority.  Deut.  i,  13-15, 
shows  that  those  who  then  were  made  iTilers  were  divinely 
appointed.  It  is  hardly  needful  to  say  how,  in  the  New 
Testament,  obedience  to  those  in  authority  is  enforced,  even 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  333 

under  heathen  rulers,  Rom.  xiii,  1 ;  Titus  iii,  1 ;  1  Peter 
ii,  13,  14. 

THE  SIXTH  COMMANDMENT. 
This  is  the  same  in  Exod.  xx,  13,  and  Deut.  v,  17. 

Thou  Shalt  not  kill. 

This  commandment  is  explained  by  our  Lord,  Matt,  v,  21, 
22  ;  1  John  iii,  15. 

Among  heathen  nations  there  was  little  or  no  discrimi- 
nation as  to  the  circumstances  under  which  life  was  lost. 
If  any  one  was  slain,  the  slayer  immediately  became  a 
marked  object  for  destruction  by  the  relatives  of  the  de- 
ceased, who  pursued  him  with  unrelenting  activity  till  he 
also  was  slain :  and  then  again  the  executor  of  vengeance 
became  a  marked  object  for  avengement  in  his  turn.  Thus 
did  Satan  pervert  the  precept  given  to  Noah,  Gen.  ix,  6 ; 
so  that  instead  of  repressing  violence,  it  was  made  the  cause 
for  extending  it.  These  practices  continued  under  the  cor- 
rupt Christianity  of  the  middle  ages,  and  were  a  part  of  the 
feudal  system.  In  the  details  of  the  law  given  to  Moses, 
this  matter  is  set  right,  the  original  precept  is  confirmed, 
but  definitions  are  given  to  prevent  it  from  being  mis- 
apphed.  Murder  is  distinctly  marked  as  proceeding  (1) 
from  hatred  or  enmity,  Num.  xxxv,  20,  21  ;  Deut.  xix,  11  ; 
(2)  from  a  thirst  for  blood,  or  desire  for  revenge,  Num. 
xxxv,  20  ;  (3)  when  designed  or  done  with  premeditated 
deceit  or  lying  in  wait,  Exod.  xxi,  14  ;  Deut,  xix,  11.  The 
punishment  of  death  to  the  ofiender  in  cases  of  murder  is 
most  distinctly  stated,  Exod.  xxi,  12-14. 

Manslaughter,  as  distinguished  from  murder,  is  very 
plainly  marked  in  these  laws,  as  (1)  when  the  death  is  caused 
without  hatred  or  enmity.  Num.  xxxv,  22  ;  Deut.  xix,  4-6  ; 
(2)  without  desire  for  revenge,  Num.  xxxv,  22  ;  also 
Exod,  xxi,  13,  where  there  is  the  first  mention  of  the  in- 
tended appointment  of  cities  of  refuge  ;  (3)  when  death 
is  caused  by  mistake,  Nimi.  xxxv,  11-15  ;  (4)  or  by  acci- 
dent, Deut.  xix,  5.  It  is  to  be  observed  that  these  dis- 
tinctions are  principally  stated  as  a  part  of  the  law  insti- 
tuting the  cities  of  refuge,  a  blessed  institution  under  the 
Mosaic  law,  not  only  as  regulating  the  administration  of 
justice,  and  restraining  the  bursts  of  passion,  but  as  sha- 


334 


JEWISH  NATION. 


I 


dowing  forth  the  blessed  truths  of  the  gospel,  and  a  type 
of  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  as  the  refuge  for  sinners.  But 
observe,  there  is  not  a  trace  of  any  ideal  sanctity  attaching 
to  the  place  : — "  And  this  is  the  case  of  the  slayer  which 
shall  flee  thither  that  he  may  live :  Whoso  killeth  his 
neighbor  ignorantly,  whom  he  hated  not  in  time  past; 
as  when  a  man  goeth  into  the  wood  with  his  neighbor  to 
hew  wood,  and  his  hand  fetcheth  a  stroke  with  the  ax  to 
cut  down  the  tree,  and  the  head  slippeth  from  the  helve, 
and  lighteth  upon  his  neighbor,  that  he  die ;  he  shall  flee 
unto  one  of  these  cities  and  live  :  lest  the  avenger  of  blood 
pursue  the  slayer,  while  his  heart  is  hot,  and  overtake 
him,  because  the  way  is  long,  and  slay  him  ;  whereas  he 


MANSLAYER  FLEEING  TO  A  CITY  OF  REFUGE. 

was  not  worthy  of  death,  inasmuch  as  he  hated  him  not  in 
time  past."  In  the  law  instituting  cities  of  refuge,  (Num. 
XXXV,  16-21,)  the  circumstances  that  tended  to  define  the 
difference  between  murder  and  manslaughter  are  important, 
and  are  distinctly  marked. 

The  same  regulations  are  again  noticed.  Josh.  xx.  The 
spiritual  import  of  these  cities  is,  however,  in  the  present 
day  far  more  striking  than  their  political  purpose.     They 


LAWS   AND   POLITY.  335 

are  not  indeed  directly  pointed  out  with  this  view  by  any 
of  the  Old  Testament  writers,  yet  surely  they  were  among 
the  types  and  shadows  of  good  things  to  come ;  Heb.  vi, 
18;  Isa.  XXV,  4;  Zech.  ix,  12.  Refuge!  refuge!  that 
welcome  term,  was  inscribed,  at  every  cross-road,  in 
characters  so  large  and  plain,  that  he  who  ran  might 
read. 

The  roads  leading  to  these  cities  were  always  kept  in 
good  repair,  the  gates  stood  open,  and  the  fugitive  was 
safe  as  soon  as  he  entered  their  suburbs.  No  weapons  of 
war  might  there  be  made,  and  the  height  of  the  hills  on 
which  these  cities  were  built,  must  have  made  them  con- 
spicuous to  the  surrounding  country.  And  is  not  Jesus  ex- 
alted in  like  manner,  to  receive  all  who  come  to  him? 
Matt,  xi,  28  ;  John  vi,  37.  Are  not  his  ministers  employed 
to  direct  sinners  to  him,  Isa.  Ivii,  14  ;  Ixii,  10  ;  while  all 
who  are  in  Christ  Jesus  are  at  once  secured  from  all  con- 
demnation? Rom.  viii.  Three  other  cities,  as  it  appears 
from  Deut.  xix,  8,  might  also  have  been  added,  if  the 
Israelites  had  carried  out  their  conquests ;  they  neglected 
the  Divine  word. 

The  punishment  for  manslaughter  was  banishment,  or 
confinement  to  the  city  of  refuge :  this  indefinite,  perhaps 
long  and  irksome  restraint,  must  have  been  a  severe  pun- 
ishment in  many  cases  ;  nor  was  there  any  provision  made 
that  the  offender  should  eat  the  bread  of  idleness,  as  in  the 
sanctuaries  attached  to  the  abbeys  and  monastic  establish- 
ments of  Popery.  Also  every  facility  was  given  to  ascer- 
tain the  real  facts  of  the  case. 

The  exceptions  in  which  homicide  was  allowed  were,  (1) 
a  burglar,  one  breaking  into  a  house  by  night,  might  be 
slain  with  impunity,  Exod.  xxii,  1,  2  ;  but  if  the  sun  had 
risen,  it  was  unlawful  to  slay  him.  He  then  might  be  made 
to  pay  full  restitution  for  his  theft ;  or  if  unable  to  do  so, 
might  be  sold  for  a  slave.  (2)  Another  exception  was  to 
meet  the  habits  of  the  times,  but  still  with  discrimination. 
If  the  person  near  of  kin,  who  was  the  avenger  of  blood, 
overtook  the  fugitive  before  he  reached  the  city  of  refuge, 
"  while  his  heart  was  hot,"  (Deut.  xix,  6,)  and  slew  him 
without  stopping  to  inquire  into  the  particulars,  he  was 
excused  for  so  doing  ;  or  if  the  offender,  after  having  found 
refuge,    presumptuously  left  the  limits  appointed  for  his 


336  JEWISH  NATION. 

restraint,  he  might  then  also  be  put  to  death.  (3)  Another 
exemption  was,  if  a  master  struck  a  slave,  so  as  to  cause 
his  death,  but  he  had  continued  to  live  a  day  or  two  after 
the  injury,  (Exod.  xxi,  20,  21,)  a  reason  is  assigned,  because 
the  slave  was  "  his  money."  This  seems  to  have  been  a 
concession  like  that  our  blessed  Lord  mentions,  "  because  of 
the  hardness  of  their  hearts ;"  and  be  it  observed,  that  the 
whole  of  the  laws  as  to  punishment  for  the  manslayer,  and 
as  to  slavery,  were  great  improvements  on  the  laws  of  hea- 
then nations.  Nor  was  the  Jewish  refuge  like  the  sanctua- 
ries of  the  Church  of  Rome,  where,  as  already  mentioned, 
inquiry  was  forbidden,  no  officer  of  justice  being  allowed 
even  to  enter  the  precincts.  Also  it  was  expressly  ordered, 
that  the  institution  of  the  cities  of  refuge  should  not  protect 
the  murderer,  Deut.  xix,  11-13.  Another  law,  tending 
strongly  to  mark  the  Divine  abhorrence  for  shedding  blood, 
was  the  solemn  manner  in  which  the  chief  persons  of  a  city 
nearest  to  where  a  murdered  body  was  found,  were  re- 
quired to  declare  their  ignorance  of  the  matter,  Deut. 
xxi,  1-9. 

Under  this  important  command,  also,  are  to  be  classed 
various  precepts  as  to  the  avenging  or  punishing  for  lesser 
injuries.  Without  dwelling  upon  each,  it  may  be  observed 
that  they  show  the  wisdom  and  discrimination  ever  seen  in 
these  Divine  precepts.  In  several  cases  they  were  milder 
than  many  modem  enactments. 

Under  the  Sixth  Commandment  also  must  be  included 
the  directions  given  in  Deut.  xxv,  for  the  expiation  or  put- 
ting away  of  the  guilt  of  murder,  when  the  real  murderer 
remained  unknown.  The  heifer  that  was  slain  on  this  oc- 
casion was  not  a  sacrifice,  for  it  was  not  brought  to  the 
altar,  but  was  made  a  ^dctim,  to  show  that  the  man  who 
had  done  the  deed  should  have  bled  in  like  manner,  if  he 
could  have  been  found.  It  seems  to  have  been  one  un- 
trained to  the  yoke,  as  the  murderer  had  refused  to  bear 
the  yoke  of  God's  laws,  Jer.  xxxi,  1 8 ;  and  was  slain  in  a 
valley,  probably  one  where  there  was  some  running  stream 
of  water,  in  which  the  neighboring  inhabitants  washed  their 
hands,  as  a  token  of  innocency,  Psa.  xxvi,  6.  A  similar 
protestation,  but  not  in  the  spirit  of  prayer,  was  made  by 
the  wretched  Pilate,  (Matt,  xxvii,  24,)  that  he  might  cast 
oif  from  himself  on  others  the  guilt  of  the  murder  of  Jesus. 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  337 

He  was  mistaken,  and  so  are  all  they  who  think  that  be- 
cause their  misdeeds  are  now  hid  they  shall  escape  the 
righteous  judgment  of  God,  Rom.  ii,  3  ;  Isa.  xxix,  15. 

THE  SEVENTH  COMMANDMENT. 

In  Exod.  XX,  14. — Thou  shalt  In  Deut.  v,  18.— Neither  shalt 
not  commit  adultery.  thou  commit  adultery. 

This  crime  itself  was  to  be  punished  with  death,  Lev. 
XX,  10  ;  as  well  as  others  which  come  under  this  head,  and 
are  always  marked  with  the  deepest  abhorrence  in  the  word 
of  God,  though  permitted  by  the  heathens,  and  even  some- 
times sanctioned  by  them,  or  even  practiced  as  rites  of  their 
false  religions.  There  were  numerous  and  various  precepts 
given,  which  are  to  be  classed  under  this  head,  generally 
marked  by  the  severest  punishment;  these  would  take 
much  space  to  explain,  and  need  not  be  entered  into  here. 
If  the  reader  should  have  occasion  to  examine  into  the  par- 
ticulars, he  can  consult  larger  works,  or  authors  who  have 
written  expressly  on  the  subject.  A  full  examination  will 
show  that  these  precepts  all  tended  to  the  same  broad  and 
comprehensive  view  taken  by  our  blessed  Lord,  in  the  ser- 
mon on  the  mount,  Matt,  v,  27,  28.  The  plain  enactment 
against  the  most  obvious  breach  of  the  law,  included  all 
other  or  more  complicated  offenses,  also  lesser  departures 
from  that  purity  repeatedly  taught  in  the  Mosaic  law.  The 
requirement  of  God  is,  "  Ye  shall  be  holy :  for  I  the  Lord 
your  God  am  holy,"  Lev.  xix,  2 ;  xx,  26  ;  which  is  em- 
phatically repeated  by  the  apostle,  1  Peter  i,  15. 

Even  an  impure  thought  or  desire  is  a  breach  of  this 
command.  Matt,  v,  27-32.  Yet  the  Scriptures  give  no 
encouragement  to  a  state  of  convent  seclusion,  nor  do  they 
anywhere  represent  single  life  as  meritorious,  which  is  one 
of  the  errors  of  the  Cliurch  of  Rome,  1  Tim.  iv,  3.  On 
the  contrary,  among  the  daughters  of  Israel,  who  longed 
for  the  birth  of  the  promised  Messiah,  marriages  were  ear- 
nestly desired,  and  occasions  of  great  festivity.  The  hus- 
band and  wife  were  usually  espoused  or  betrothed  to  each 
other  for  a  twelvemonth  before  they  were  united.  To  this 
state  the  relation  between  Christ  and  his  Church  on  earth 
has  been  compared,  Song  iv,  11  ;  Eph.  v,  26  ;  Rev.  xix,  7; 
2  Cor.  xi,  3 ;  and  the  numerous  rebukes  and  warnings  of 
15 


338  JEAVISH  NATION. 

the  prophets  against  the  Jews  of  old  for  their  idohitry,  and 
departing  from  tlie  living  God,  are  frequently  expressed  in 
terms  suited  to  this  comparison,  Ezek.  xvi ;  jer.  iii.  Here- 
by, also,  the  sins  connected  with  the  neglect  of  the  seventh 
command  were  shown  to  be  hateful  and  disgraceful,  how- 
ever common  such  practices  might  be  among  the  heathens. 
With  the  seventh  commandment  was  connected  the 
trial  by  bitter  water,  Num.  v,  12-31 ;  the  only  species  of 
ordeal  allowed  among  the  Jews,  which  was  so  directed,  that 
the  innocent  could  not  be  injured,  while  the  honor  of  God 
was  solemnly  appealed  to,  to  punish  the  guilty — a  very 
different  case  from  the  trial  by  ordeal  in  England,  and  else- 
where, during  the  dark  ages,  when  the  numerous  ceremonies 
and  conditions  gave  room  for  much  mistake  and  deception. 
The  Jewish  trial  fell  into  disuse  in  the  latter  years  of  their 
state,  when  their  morals  had  become  exceedingly  corrupt. 
In  the  time  of  our  Lord,  not  only  was  divorce  or  separation 
on  slight  grounds  very  common,  (Matt,  xix,  3-11,)  but 
men  and  women  were  often  known  to  come  together,  ar- 
ranging that  it  should  be  but  for  a  time,  Hosea  iii,  3.  All 
this  was  forbidden  under  the  Christian  dispensation,  Matt. 
X,  5-9  ;  Eph.  v,  31 ;  1  Cor.  vii,  2.  Thus  the  Christian  re- 
ligion has  conferred  blessings  even  on  Jewish  females,  in 
the  lands  inhabited  by  the  followers  of  Jesus  of  Nazareth, 
who  are  freed  from  the  jealousies  and  the  debased  condi- 
tion to  which  their  sisters  in  Mohammedan  and  pagan  coun- 
tries are  still  exposed,  where  the  same  laws  are  not  ob- 
served, and  more  wives  than  one  may  be  taken. 


LAWS   AND   POLITY.  3S9 


CHAPTER  X. 


OFFENSES  AGAINST  PROPERTY,  OR  THE  EIGHTH,  NINTH, 
AND   TENTH  COMMANDMENTS. 

THE  EIGHTH  COMMANDMENT  IS, 

In  Exod.  XX,  15.— Thou  shalt  In  Dent,  v,  19.— Neither  shalt 
not  steal.  thou  steal. 

On  this  head  the  Mosaic  law  enters  into  many  details,  and 
the  principles  will  be  found  to  exhibit  the  highest  discrimi- 
native wisdom.  And  though  every  detail  is  not  applicable 
to  modern  times,  or  to  the  European  state  of  society,  yet 
the  principles  are  so ;  and  the  more  closely  they  can  be  at- 
tended to  in  modem  codes  of  laws,  the  more  will  there  be 
of  justice  and  equity.  The  main  principle  was,  restitution 
for  the  injury  done,  and  so  as  to  restrain  the  evil-doer,  but 
not  to  take  man's  life  for  the  matter  of  property. 

The  only  exceptions, — the  only  cases  in  which  death  was 
permitted  as  punishment  for  crimes  under  this  head — were 
those  of  burglary  by  night,  (Exod.  xxii,  2,)  already  noticed, 
and  for  Max-stealing,  the  taking  a  free-born  Israelite  by 
craft  or  violence  to  enslave  him  or  sell  him  for  a  slave, 
Exod.  xxi,  16  ;  Deut.  xxiv,  1.  Thus,  to  tear  a  man  from 
all  near  and  dear  to  him,  and  transfer  him  into  a  state  of 
dependence  upon  the  will  or  caprice  of  another,  probably 
of  a  heathen,  was  indeed  a  deliberate  murder  of  the  indivi- 
dual as  to  all  earthly  happiness,  though  not  destroying  at 
once  the  spark  of  life. 

The  objects  for  theft  in  the  early  state  of  the  Israelites 
would  naturally  be  their  flocks  and  herds.  In  the  simplest 
case,  when  the  stolen  ox  or  sheep  was  found,  so  that  it  could 
be  restored  to  the  owner,  the  thief  was  to  double  the  value, 
to  "restore  double,"  Exod.  xxii,  4.  The  same  rule  was 
also  applicable  "  for  all  manner  of  trespass,"  "for  raiment, 
or  for  any  manner  of  lost  thing,"  ver.  9  ;  but  if  it  was  an  ox, 
sheep,  or  goat,  and  the  animal  was  killed,  so  that  the  owner 
could  no  longer  have  the  same  use  of  it  as  before,  then  the 
restitution  or  penalty  was  fivefold  for  an  ox,  fourfold  for  a 
sheep  or  goat,  Exod.  xxii,  1.  In  later  times,  a  thief,  in 
all  cases,  seems  to  liave  been  required  to  pay  sevenfold, 


340  JEWISH  NATION. 

Prov.  vi,  30,  31.  Thus  the  penalty  became  a  debt ;  it  was 
treated  as  such,  and  if  the  thief  had  nothing,  it  is  enacted, 
(Exod.  xxii,  3,)  "  then  he  shall  be  sold  for  his  theft,"  whe- 
ther for  the  usual  period  of  the  service  of  a  Hebrew  slave, 
(Exod.  xxi,  11,)  which  was  six  years,  or  according  to  the 
value  of  the  article  and  of  the  service,  does  not  very 
clearly  appear. 

There  is  in  Lev.  vi,  2-5,  a  remarkable  provision  ifi 
favor  of  one  guilty  of  theft,  but  repentant.  Though  it  could 
not  be  proved  against  him  at  the  time,  if  he  afterwards  con- 
fessed his  guilt,  he  was  cleared  on  restoring  the  amount  lost, 
and  one-fifth  of  its  value  besides. 

There  are  many  cases  specified  of  careless  and  willful 
damage  or  injury  without  theft,  stated  in  Exod.  xxii,  5,  6. 
Another  class  of  precepts  extended  to  property  committed 
in  trust  to  others,  Exod.  xxii,  7-13  ;  but  there  were  excep- 
tions in  the  case  of  live  animals  which  might  have  strayed, 
or  suffered  from  circumstances  the  party  intrusted  could 
not  control.  A  borrowed  article,  if  lost  or  damaged,  was 
to  be  replaced  unless  the  owner  himself  was  with  it,  Exod. 
V,  14,  15.  In  these  and  other  cases  there  are  some  minute 
discriminations,  which  have  been  adopted  in  the  laws  of  our 
own  country,  as  important  in  guiding  to  just  and  equitable 
proceedings. 

The  laws  respecting  Debt  had  many  enactments  peculiar 
to  the  circumstances  of  the  Jews.  All  usurious  profit  or 
interest,  or  benefit,  over  and  above  the  return  of  the  article 
intended,  was  forbidden  among  their  own  countrymen, 
though  they  might  take  interest  from  strangers.  This  was 
an  important  regulation,  calculated  to  retain  the  mass  of 
the  Jewish  people  in  the  middle  state,  which  was  especially 
marked  out  for  them,  and  which,  when  all  things  are  consi- 
dered, is  the  happiest  for  a  people.  It  is  however  evident, 
that  such  a  state  of  things  cannot  continue,  unless  a  nation 
is  actuated  by  the  principles  of  true  religion,  both  to  restrain 
the  ambitious  and  covetous,  and  to  excite  the  indolent  and 
dissipated  to  activity  and  industry.  It  will  commonly  be 
found  that  the  rise  of  some,  and  the  depression  of  others,  is 
owing  to  the  ignorance,  idleness,  or  vices  of  those  who  sink, 
more  than  to  rapacity  or  oppression  in  those  that  rise.  Pa- 
rents cannot  be  too  diligent  in  training  up  their  childi-en  in 
habits  o^  activity,  industry,  and  carefulness.     These  may 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  341 

indeed  degenerate  into  covetousness  when  the  mind  is  not 
regulated  by  the  fear  of  God  ;  but  where  carelessness,  and 
waste,  and  indolence  become  habitual,  there  will  be  found 
deplorable  results,  not  only  to  the  parties  themselves,  but 
to  all  connected  with  them.  The  Mosaic  laws  were  quite 
as  much  opposed  to  the  habits  and  practices  of  pauperism 
as  to  the  vast  and  useless  accumulation  of  property.  There 
are  many  precepts  to  relieve  the  poor  man,  but  the  poor 
Israelite  was  a  very  different  being  from  the  English  pauper, 
or  the  beggar  of  Popish  countries.  Under  the  very  differ- 
ent state  of  society  in  Europe  at  the  present  day,  there  is 
nothing  to  prevent  the  taking  a  moderate  use  or  interest 
for  money,  which  does  not  extend  to  oppression.  A  large 
number  of  the  means  of  livelihood  at  the  present  day  can 
only  be  followed  by  borrowed  capital.  The  sharing  of 
property,  on  the  one  hand,  and  allowing  the  use  of  capital 
on  the  other,  under  such  circumstances,  is  quite  in  accord- 
ance with  the  principles  of  the  Divine  law.  There  are, 
however,  cases  in  which  usurious  and  oppressive  returns 
are  exacted,  and  these  are  as  contrary  to  the  principles  of 
Christianity  as  they  are  to  the  letter  of  the  Jewish  law. 
The  borrower  also  was  protected  in  many  little  points 
affecting  his  feelings.  If  a  pledge  was  taken  for  a  debt, 
the  lender  was  not  to  enter  the  house  and  choose  an  article 
at  his  will,  but  was  to  wait  at  the  door,  allowing  the  bor- 
rower to  select  what  he  could  best  spare,  (Deut.  xxiv, 
10,  11,)  as  was  noticed  p.  284 ;  and  as  this  would  probably 
be  an  article  of  clothing,  for  no  one  was  supposed  likely  to 
borrow  but  in  cases  of  absolute  necessity,  it  was  to  be  re- 
stored him  for  his  use  at  night ;  Exod.  xxii,  25-27  ;  Deut. 
xxiv,  12,  13.  This  enactment  shows  that  it  was  never  in- 
tended that  there  should  be  even  a  borrower,  unless  in 
case  of  what  we  should  call  deep  poverty.  The  mill- 
stone, the  article  for  daily  use,  was  not  at  all  to  be  taken, 
Deut.  xxiv,  6. 

When  debts  were  contracted,  the  lender  was  not  to  be 
wronged.  Here  the  laws  of  antiquity  were  very  severe, 
sometimes  giving  creditors  power  over  the  lives  of  their 
debtors.  In  Rome,  more  than  one  insurrection  was  occa- 
sioned by  the  cruelty  of  creditors  ;  but  the  Mosaic  law  did 
not  allow  of  such  proceedings.  It  is  true,  that  the  pro- 
perty of  the  debtor  was   answerable  for   his   debts,  and 


'H'l  JEWISH    NATION. 

even  his  person  and  that  of  his  family,  in  case  of  the  land 
and  other  property  being  insufficient  to  repay  the  loan ; 
but  still  the  debtor  was  not  to  be  plunged  into  irremediable 
and  hopeless  poverty.  The  law  of  the  jubilee  fully  pro- 
vided for  a  return  to  former  privileges,  as  already  fully  ex- 
plained, page  311.  Imprisonment  for  debt,  as  mentioned 
Matt,  xviii,  84,  was  not  permitted  by  the  Mosaic  law.  All 
loans  and  all  servitude  was  for  a  limited  period  only,  and  a 
beautiful  exposition  of  duty  was  recorded,  to  prevent  any 
grudging  at  this  principle  of  good- will  to  others,  Deut.  xv, 
7-11.  In  various  places  in  the  Old  and  also  in  the  New 
Testament,  there  are  notices  which  illustrate  the  Jewish 
law  of  debtor  and  creditor,  and  the  manner  in  which  it  was 
at  times  departed  from.  The  debtors  that  resorted  to 
David,  1  Sam.  xxii,  2.  The  family  of  the  son  of  the  pro- 
phets, 2  Kings  iv,  1-7.  The  oppressed  debtors,  that  cried 
to  Nehemiah,  Neh,  x.  The  cautions  in  the  Book  of  Pro- 
verbs, xxii,  6,  7.  The  parables  of  our  blessed  Lord,  Matt, 
xviii;  Luke  vii.  The  word  by  the  prophet  Ezekiel,  xviii,  7  ; 
and  in  the  comment  on  the  Lord's  Prayer,  Matt,  vi,  12-15. 
But  the  injunction  by  the  apostle,  "  Owe  no  man  anything, 
but  to  love  one  another,"  (Rom.  xiii,  8,)  is  not  less  a  com- 
mand ;  and  the  observance  of  it  is  equally  needful  to  com- 
fort and  real  enjoyment  of  life.  When  Elisha  multiplied 
the  widow's  oil,  he  directed  her  first  to  go  and  pay  her 
debt,  and  to  live  on  what  remained. 

Becoming  surety  for  a  debt  does  not  appear  to  have  been 
sanctioned  by  the  law,  though  afterwards  practiced;  this 
explains  the  express  cautions  against  it,  Prov.  xi,  15  ;  xvii, 
18;  xxii,  26.  At  the  present  day  these  cautions  are  im- 
portant, and  should  be  attended  to,  both  as  principles  and 
as  matters  of  practice.  Whenever  such  engagements  exceed 
what  can  be  met  without  serious  injury,  they  are  often 
injurious,  not  only  to  the  surety,  but  to  those  dependent 
on  him. 

We  may  also  observe  the  range  of  this  command  in 
Lev.  xix,  13,  "Thou  shalt  not  defraud  thy  neighbor,  nei- 
ther rob  him :  the  wages  of  him  that  is  hired  shall  not  abide 
with  thee  all  night  until  the  morning." 

Before  leaving  this  law,  let  the  institution  of  the  jubilee 
be  again  referred  to,  as  a  happy  means  to  promote  the  mid- 
dle state  of  society  by  the  process  of  readjustment  being 


^ 


LAWS  AND  POLITY. 


343 


ELISHA  MULTIPLYING  THE  WIDOW'S  OIL. 

perpetuated,  without  injustice,  violence,  or  leveling.  Pro- 
perty in  effects  or  houses  was  not  to  return,  in  those  days, 
but  under  the  circumstances  that  existed,  there  could  be  no 
very  great  accumulation ;  for  lending  of  money  or  commo- 
dities for  the  sake  of  gain  was  forbidden. 


THE  NINTH  COMMANDMENT. 

InExod.  XX,  16.— Thou  shalt  In  Deut.  v,  20.— Neither  shalt 
not  bear  false  witness  against  thy  thou  bear  false  witness  against 
neighbor.  thy  neighbor. 

This  law  has  been  well  said  to  include  all  crimes  of 
MALICE.  The  bearing  false  witness  in  matters  of  judica- 
ture is  not  the  only  evil  forbidden,  though  that  is  very 
strongly  marked,  Exod.  xxiii,  1-3  ;  and  all  leaning  to  either 
party,  even  to  the  poor  out  of  compassion,  is  expressly 
forbidden,  Exod.  xxiii,  1-3.  Lev.  xix,  15,  was  applica- 
ble to  witnesses  as  well  as  to  the  judge.  The  punishment 
of  false  witnesses  is  very  clearly  stated,  and  very  equitably 
settled,  Deut.  xix,  16-21.  This  was  a  strong  protection  to 
the  poor  man.  "  If  the  witness  be  a  false  witness,  and 
hath  testified  falsely  against  his  brother ;  then  shall  ye  do 
unto  him  as  he  had  thought  to  have  done  unto  his  brother : 
so  shalt  thou  put  the  evil  away  from  among  you." 


344  JEWISH  NATION. 

This  commandment  extended  far  beyond  the  crime  of 
false  witness  in  matters  of  pubhc  judgment.  It  aimed  at 
the  malicious  and  idle  tale-bearing  and  gossip  which  cause 
so  many  injmies  every  day  amongst  us.  Exod.  xxiii,  1, 
may  be  considered  as  applicable  both  to  raising  and  receiv- 
ing false  reports ;  it  may  be  truly  said,  in  this  case,  if  there 
were  no  receivers  there  would  be  no  thieves,  none  trying  to 
steal  away  a  neighbor's  character  or  peace.  "  Thou  shalt 
go  up  and  down  as  a  tale-bearer  among  thy  people,"  is 
still  more  applicable  at  the  present  day  than  in  ancient 
days,  and  seldom  will  any  report  be  traced  or  followed  out, 
but  there  will  be  found  cause  to  wonder  at  the  additions 
and  perversions  made  to  the  most  simple  and  truthful 
matter. 

This  command  also  was  applied  to  every  transaction  of 
life.  Observe  the  wide  range  included  in  a  few  words, 
Lev.  xix,  12:  "Ye  shall  not  swear  by  my  name  falsely, 
neither  shalt  thou  profane  the  name  of  thy  God  ;  I  am  the 
Lord."  The  preceding  verse  expressly  forbids  "lying." 
"  Ye  shall  not  steal,  neither  deal  falsely,  nor  lie  one  to  an- 
other." The  passages  in  the  Psalms,  Proverbs,  and  prophets 
that  condemn  all  lying  and  falsehood  are  too  numerous 
to  quote ;  they  show  the  awful  extent  to  which  this  sin 
prevailed. 

As  a  strong  guard  against  false  evidence  in  all  matters 
affecting  the  life  of  any  one  charged  with  crime,  more  than 
one  witness  was  required,  Num.  xxxv,  30  ;  Deut.  xvii,  6 ; 
xix,  15.  The  reader  will  recollect  how  this  law  embarrassed 
the  chief  priests  and  Jewish  rulers  in  their  malicious  pro- 
ceedings against  our  blessed  Lord,  (Mark  xiv,  55,  5Q,)  pro- 
bably recorded  by  the  apostle  Peter,  who  was  present 
at  the  time. 

THE  TENTH   COMMANDMENT. 

In  Exod.  XX,  17. — Thou  shalt  In  Dent,  v,  21.— Neither  shalt 
not  covet  thy  neighbor's  house,  thou  desire  thy  neighbor's  wife, 
thou  shalt  not  covet  thy  neighbor's  neither  shalt  thou  covet  thy  neigh- 
wife,  nor  his  man-servant,  nor  his  bor's  house,  his  field,  or  his  man- 
maid-servant,  nor  his  ox,  nor  his  servant,  or  his  maid-sei-vant,  his 
ass,  nor  anything  that  is  thy  ox,  or  his  ass,  or  anything  that 
neighbor's.                                      .  is  thy  neighbor's. 

This  law  especially  shows  the  Divine  origin  of  the  Ten 
Commandments.   No  human  lawgiver  has  ever  attempted  to 


LAWS  AND   POLITY. 


^A 


make  such  an  enactment;  the  proceedings  of  man's  laws 
seem  fully  to  agree  with  the  common  but  mistaken  saying, 
"  Thought  is  free."  It  is  not  so ;  this  is  shown  throughout 
the  Bible.  Deut.  xv,  9,  is  to  the  same  purport  as  this  com- 
mand. David  cautioned  Solomon  that  the  Lord  "  under- 
standeth  all  the  imaginations  of  the  thoughts,"  1  Chron. 
xxviii,  9.  Solomon  recorded  that  "  the  thought  of  foolish- 
ness is  sin,"  Prov.  xxiv,  9.  Elijah  cautioned  the  people  on 
Carmel  not  to  halt  "between  two  thoughts,"  1  Kings  xviii,  21, 
margin ;  thus  showing  them  that  the  thought  even  of 
idolatry  was  sin.  The  Psalmist  characterizes  the  wicked  man 
as  not  having  God  in  all  his  thoughts,  Psa.  x,  4,  and  con- 
sidered God  as  understanding  his  thoughts,  Psa.  cxxxix,  2. 
The  prophet  Ezekiel  warned  against  evil  thoughts, 
xxxviii,  10.  Isaiah  counseled  the  unrighteous  man  to  for- 
sake his  thougtits,  Iv,  1 :  but  it  is  needless  to  multiply  ex- 
amples. In  the  New  Testament  this  is  even  more  strongly 
shown.  Acts  viii,  22  ;  2  Cor.  x,  5.  Our  blessed  Lord  pointed 
to  the  evil  source,  the  heart,  Matt,  xv,  19. 

This  last  command  then  shows  that  the  Divine  Lawgiver 
meant  that  all  the  prohibitions  of  these  commands  should 
refer  to  the  dispositions  and  intents  and  desires  of  the  heart, 
as  well  as  to  outward  acts,  not  only  to  murder,  theft,  and 
other  crimes,  but  to  all  that  lead  to  those  evils.  The  Jews 
evidently  knew  this ;  the  Psalms  continually  refer  thereto  : 
"  Try  me,  and  know  my  thoughts,"  Psa.  xxxix,  23,  is  one 
among  very  many  instances  ;  and  see  the  whole  of  Psa.  cxix. 
Graves  dwells  upon  this,  giving  extracts  also  from  the 
writings  of  Josephus  and  Pliilo,  while  the  precepts  of  the 
Scribes  and  Pharisees  plainly  show  how  they  strove  to  take 
away  this  wide  and  spiritual  application  of  the  law,  which 
they  felt  was  most  decidedly  opposed  to  the  corrupt  motions 
of  their  hearts ;  consequently  we  do  not  class  other  pre- 
cepts under  this  head,  but  refer  to  it  as  covering,  and  con- 
firming, and  summing  up  all  the  rest.  This,  indeed,  is  the 
strongest  enforcing  that  can  be  devised ;  unless  the  lieart 
was  right  with  God,  there  would  be  little  probability  of 
obedience  to  his  commands.  The  summary,  Deut.  x,  12, 13, 
is  very  comprehensive  and  important.  The  whole  of 
the  sermon  on  the  mount  (Matt,  v,  vi,  vii)  showed  how  our 
blessed  Lord  insisted  upon  this,  carrying  it  out  to  the  mi- 
nutest details.  And,  to  return  again  to  the  Old  Testament, 
15* 


34(5  JEWISH  NATION. 

the  word  of  the  Lord,  speaking  by  the  prophet,  is  impres- 
sive :  "  For  the  iniquity  of  his  covetousness  was  I  wroth, 
and  smote  him,"  Isaiah  Ivii,  17.  It  was  the  tenth  com- 
mandment, in  its  wide  extent  and  spiritual  import,  which 
St.  Paul  mentioned  as  having  con\inced  him  that  he  was  a 
sinner,  though  his  outward  conduct  had  been  upright  and 
blameless,  Romans  vii,  7  ;  Phil,  iii,  6. 

CONCLUDING  REMARKS  ON  THE  JEWISH  LAWS. 

The  law  of  God  is  found  to  refer  to  some  things  that 
men  might  regard  as  trifles  ;  for  instance,  mercy  to  animals, 
Deut.  xxiv,  4,  and  xxii,  1-7.  The  Jews  say  that  the  law 
respecting  birds'  nests  was  the  least  of  all  the  commands 
given  by  Moses,  yet  it  contains  the  same  sanction  which 
is  given  to  the  most  important  earthly  duties.  The  same 
spirit  of  humanity  and  concern  for  inferior  creatures  is 
taught  in  other  parts  of  Scripture  :  "  One  of  them  shall 
not  fall  on  the  ground  without  your  Father,"  Matt,  x,  29. 
"  A  righteous  man  regardeth  the  hfe  of  his  beast :  but  the 
tender  mercies  of  the  wicked  are  cruel,"  Prov.  xii,  10.  Let 
it,  then,  be  remembered,  that  even  in  little  matters  (Matt. 
V,  19)  the  heart  must  be  kept  right  with  God,  and  let  all 
resemblance  to  Satan,  the  great  destroyer,  be  carefully 
avoided,  for  "  trifles  make  the  sum  of  human  things,"  and 
"  he  that  despiseth  small  things  shall  fall  by  little  and 
little." 

Although  some  of  the  lesser  enactments  of  the  Jewish 
law  have  not  been  literally  copied  in  the  laws  of  the  Bri- 
tish islands,  yet  it  must  be  evident  that  the  leading  features 
of  the  Hebrew  code  still  exist  in  the  institutions  of  most 
civilized  nations.  In  the  north  of  Europe,  and  in  Britain 
especially,  Christianity  and  civihzation  advanced  liand  in 
hand ;  for  the  inhabitants  of  our  own  land  were  long  de- 
spised by  the  learned  Greeks  and  Romans,  as  rude  barba- 
rians, incapable  of  understanding,  and  little  superior  to  the 
beasts  of  the  field.  It  was  the  preaching  of  the  word  of 
God  to  "  Britons  severed  from  the  world  beside,"  which  was 
the  means  of  raising  England  to  the  place  she  now  holds 
among  the  nations ;  and  in  many  points,  the  conversion  of 
the  Britons  and  Saxons,  in  its  character  and  results,  may 
be  compared  to  the  changes  that  have  recently  taken  place 


LAWS   AND   POLITY.  347 

in  New-Zealand  and  other  isles  of  the  south.     It  is  desi 
rable,  however,  in  this  place,  to  refer  chiefly  to  the  present 
condition  of  Britain,  and  especially  to  those  institutions  by 
which  a  state  of  order  and  prosperity  has  been  secured 
under  the  blessing  of  God. 

With  respect  to  the  administration  of  the  law,  Blackstone, 
in  his  Commentaries  upon  the  Laws  of  England,  observes, 
"As  to  the  power  of  human  punishment,  or  the  right  of 
the  temporal  legislator  to  inflict  discretionary  penalties  for 
crimes  and  misdemeanors,  it  is  clear  that  the  right  of 
punishing  crimes  against  the  law  of  natiu-e,  as  murder  and 
the  like,  is  in  a  state  of  mere  nature  vested  in  every  indi- 
vidual ;  for  it  must  be  vested  in  somebody,  otherwise  the 
laws  of  nature  would  be  vain  and  fruitless,  if  none  were  em- 
powered to  put  them  in  execution ;  and  if  that  power  be 
vested  in  any  one,  it  must  also  be  vested  in  all  mankind, 
since  all  are  by  nature  equal.  Whereof  the  first  murderer, 
Cain,  was  so  sensible,  that  we  find  him  expressing  his  ap- 
prehensions, that  whoever  would  find  him  should  slay  him. 
In  a  state  of  society  this  right  is  transferred  from  individuals 
to  the  sovereign  power,  whereby  men  are  prevented  from 
being  judges  in  their  own  causes,  which  is  one  of  the  evils 
that  civil  government  was  intended  to  remedy.  Whatever 
power  therefore  individuals  had  of  punishing  off'enses  against 
the  laws  of  nature,  that  is  now  vested  in  the  magistrate 
alone,  who  bears  the  sword  of  justice  by  the  consent  of  the 
whole  community.  As  to  offenses  against  the  laws  of 
society,  the  temporal  magistrate  is  also  empowered  to  inflict 
coercive  penalties  for  such  transgressions,  and  this  by  the 
consent  of  individuals,  who,  in  forming  societies,  did  either 
tacitly  or  expressly  invest  the  sovereign  power  with  the 
right  of  making  laws,  and  of  enforcing  obedience  to  them 
when  made,  by  exercising  upon  their  non-observance  seve- 
rities adequate  to  the  evil.  The  lawfulness,  therefore,  of 
punishing  such  criminals,  is  founded  upon  this  principle, 
that  the  law,  by  which  they  suffer,  was  made  by  their  own 
consent ;  it  is  a  part  of  the  original  contract  into  which  they 
entered,  when  first  they  engaged  in  society ;  it  was  calcu- 
lated for,  and  has  long  contributed  to,  their  own  se- 
curity." 

This  light,  therefore,  being  thus  conferred  by  universal 
consent,  gives  to  the  State  the  same  power,  and  no  more. 


348  JEWISH  NATION. 

over  all  its  members,  as  each  individual  has  naturally  over 
himself  or  others,  which  has  occasioned  some  to  doubt  how 
far  a  human  legislature  ought  to  inflict  capital  punishment 
for  positive  offenses.  Capital  punishments  are  in  some  in- 
stances inflicted  by  the  immediate  command  of  God  himself 
to  all  mankind,  as  in  the  case  of  murder,  by  the  precept 
delivered  to  Noah,  their  common  ancestor  and  repre- 
sentative :  "  Whoso  sheddeth  man's  blood,  by  man  shall  his 
blood  be  shed."  In  other  instances  they  are  inflicted  after 
the  example  of  the  Creator,  in  his  positive  code  of  laws  for 
the  regulation  of  the  Jewish  republic.  But  they  are  some- 
times inflicted  Avithout  any  such  express  warrant  or  example, 
at  the  will  and  discretion  of  the  human  legislatures,  as  for 
forgery,  theft,  and  sometimes  oflfenses  of  a  lighter  kind.* 
The  practice  of  inflicting  capital  punishments  for  oflfenses  of 
human  institution,  has  been  thus  justified  by  that  great  and 
good  man.  Sir  Matthew  Hale :  "  When  offenses  grow  enor- 
mous, frequent,  and  dangerous  to  a  kingdom  or  state,  de- 
structive or  highly  pernicious  to  civil  societies,  and  to  the 
great  insecurity  and  danger  of  the  kingdom  and  its  inhabit- 
ants, severe  punishment,  and  even  death  itself,  is  necessary 
to  be  annexed  to  laws  in  many  cases."  Where  the  evil  to 
be  prevented  is  not  adequate  to  the  violence  of  the  pre- 
ventive, a  sovereign  that  thinks  seriously  can  never  justify 
such  a  law  to  the  dictates  of  conscience  and  humanity.  To 
shed  the  blood  of  our  fellow-creatures  is  a  matter  that  re- 
quires the  greatest  deliberation,  and  the  fullest  conviction 
of  our  own  authority,  for  life  is  the  immediate  gift  of  God 
to  man,  which  neither  he  can  resign,  nor  can  it  be  taken 
from  him  unless  by  the  command  or  permission  of  him  who 
gave  it,  either  expressly  revealed,  or  collected  from  the  laws 
of  nature  or  society,  by  clear  and  indisputable  demonstra- 
tion. When  a  question  arises,  whether  death  may  be  law- 
full)^  inflicted  for  this  or  that  transgression,  the  wisdom  of 
the  laws  must  decide  it,  and  to  this  public  judgment  or  de- 
cision all  private  judgments  must  submit,  else  there  is  an 
end  of  the  first  principle  of  all  society  and  government. 
The  guilt  of  blood,  if  any,  must  lie  at  their  doors  who  mis- 
interpret the  extent  of  their  warrant,  and  not  at  the  doors 

*  This  applies  to  England,  where,  happily,  of  late  years,  and  especially  during 
the  reign  of  Queen  Victoria,  the  frequency  of  capital  punishment  has  been 
greatly  reduced. 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  349 

of  the  subject,  who  is  bound  to  receive  the  interpretations 
that  are  given  by  the  sovereign  power." 

By  our  law,  also,  every  one,  until  he  is  proved  to  be 
guilty,  is  regarded  as  innocent.  Yet  even  in  the  best  re- 
gulated state,  there  are  evils  that  cannot  be  remedied,  and 
mistakes  which  must  arise  from  the  weakness  and  imperfec- 
tion of  all  human  instruments.  The  true  Christian  in  pri- 
vate life  will  therefore  remember  that  his  part  on  earth  is 
*'  to  do  well,  and  bear  evil,"  and  leave  all  events  in  the  hand 
of  Him  who  worketh  all  things  after  the  course  of  his  own 
will,  and  can  cause  those  things  which  seem  to  be  against 
us,  to  promote  our  truest  welfare.  This  does  not,  however, 
excuse  those  who  are  called  to  rule,  from  a  neglect  of  the 
duties  of  their  stations — the  powers  that  be  are  ordained  of 
God — and  are  required  to  be  a  terror  to  evil  doers,  and  a 
praise  to  them  that  do  well.  Even  the  humblest  Christian 
may,  by  prayer  and  a  holy  course  of  life,  do  something  to 
check  the  course  of  increasing  corruption.  "  Ten  righteous 
men  would  have  saved  a  city  once ;"  and  the  Lord  in  after 
times  declared,  by  his  inspired  servant,  that  he  sought  for 
such  in  Judah  to  stand  before  him  in  the  gap,  but  found 
none,  Ezek.  xxii,  30.  The  day  is  fast  approaching,  of  which 
the  ruin  of  Jerusalem  was  but  a  type,  when  the  things  that 
are  now  hidden  will  be  clearly  brought  to  light,  and  fierce 
wrath  will  be  poured  out  on  all  the  ungodly, — "  When  God 
shall  bring  every  work  into  judgment,  with  every  secret 
thing,  whether  it  be  good  or  evil." 

"  Then  Mercy  for  Judgment  will  call ; 
And  who  shall  his  coming  abide, 
When  wrath,  the  most  fearful  of  all— 
The  wrath  of  the  Lamb,  is  defied  ?" 


CHAPTER  XI. 

JEWISH     POLITY. 

The  name  of  a  creature  brings  with  it  the  idea  of  a  Creator 
and  Disposer,  Rev.  iv,  11.  Man  claims  authority  over  the 
objects  that  himself  has  formed ;  and  this  comparison  is  often 
used  in  Scripture  to  shadow  forth  the  great  truth  that  the 
Most  High  ruleth  in  the  kingdoms  of  men,  and  fulfills  his 


350  JEWISH   NATION. 

own  purposes,  as  tlie  potter  fashions  vessels  out  of  the  clay, 
Dan.  iv,  32;  Rom.  ix,  20,  21;  Isa.  xlv,  9;  Jer.  xviii,  6; 
Psa.  c,  3 ;  cxix,  73.  The  deahngs  of  God  with  nations  as 
such,  are  plainly  manifested  both  by  Scripture  and  experi- 
ence ;  for,  although  the  true  state  of  individuals  cannot  be 
judged  from  their  condition  as  to  outward  prosperity, 
(Eccl.  ix,  2,)  yet  since  communities  exist  only  in  this  world, 
it  is  in  this  world  that  nations  are  either  punished  or  re- 
warded. 

It  would  be  easy  to  multiply  instances  in  point,  from  the 
histories  of  both  Jews  and  Gentiles.  Some  of  the  striking 
and  minute  descriptions  of  prophecy  may  be  here  alluded 
to.  The  sword,  Hab.  i,  6-8.  The  famine,  Jer.  xiv,  1-4 ; 
V,  24 ;  Lam.  ii,  13-15.  Wild  beasts,  Isa.  xxxiv,  13,  14. 
The  pestilence,  2  Sam.  xxiv,  15.  Numerous  interpositions 
of  Providence  might  also  be  referred  to,  in  which,  though 
outwardly  weak  and  powerless,  the  people  of  God  expe- 
rienced the  truth  of  the  promise,  "  No  weapon  that  is  form- 
ed against  thee  shall  prosper,"  Isa.  liv,  IV.  Theirs  was 
not  merely  a  god  of  the  hills,  but  one  who  was  nigh  unto 
them  in  all  places  and  in  all  circumstances,  Deut.  iv,  7 ; 

1  Kings  XX,  27,  28.  See  also  2  Kings  vi,  16;  2  Chron. 
xiii,  12  ;  xx,  12 ;  xxx,  21.  How  necessary  it  is  to  keep  in 
mind  that  in  the  Lord  alone  is  righteousness  and  strength ! 
all  other  confidence  is  leaning  on  a  broken  reed,  by  which 
many  have  pierced  themselves  with  sorrow. 

"  Sure  as  on  creatures  we  depend, 
Our  hopes  in  disappointment  end." 

It  is  probable  that  the  fallen  angels  gloried  in  their  own 
perfections,  and  lost  sight  of  that  dependence  which  must 
ever  subsist  between  a  creature  and  his  Creator.  It  is  cer- 
tain that  by  this  temptation  Satan  beguiled  Eve,  Gen.  iii,  6 ; 

2  Cor.  xi,  3  ;  and  in  the  same  manner  he  has  endeavored  to 
seduce  all  her  posterity.  The  long  hves  of  men  before  the 
flood,  and  their  free  and  undisturbed  possession  of  earthly 
indulgences,  might  have  led  them  to  exclaim,  "  Who  is  lord 
over  us  ?"  and  perhaps  to  say,  "  There  is  no  God."  These 
were  "  overflown  with  a  flood,"  but  the  race  that  followed 
them  soon  proved  the  corruption  of  their  hearts,  rejecting 
the  commands  of  God,  and  falling  into  superstition  and 
idolatry.     The  presumptuous  spirit  of  infidelity  has  from 


LAWS   AND   POLITY.  851 

time  to  time  revived,  and  in  these  latter  days  it  has  become 
especially  prevalent,  2  Pet.  iii,  2, 

The  Jews  of  old  rightly  judged,  that  the  covenant  which 
God  made  with  Noah  was  made  with  all  his  posterity,  Gen. 
ix,  9  ;  and  that  its  requirements  were  binding  on  Gentile 
proselytes.  These  were  enjoined  to  abstain  from  fornica- 
tion, murder,  theft,  idolatry,  blasphemy,  eating  of  things 
strangled,  and  of  blood.  Similar  engagements  were  made 
by  the  apostles  with  their  first  converts  from  heathenism, 
and  there  had  been  instances,  from  time  to  time,  of  solitary 
individuals  in  distant  lands  acknowledging  the  authority  of 
the  God  of  Israel,  who  submitted  to  these  rules,  and  re- 
nounced their  heathen  practices.  In  many  cases,  doubtless, 
these  sons  and  daughters  from  afar  would  also  be  instructed 
in  the  import  of  the  Levitical  sacrifices,  and  brought  to  un- 
derstand how  all  the  families  of  the  earth  should  be  blessed 
in  the  promised  son  of  Abraham,  that  Seed  of  the  woman 
who  should  bruise  the  head  of  the  serpent,  and  become  the 
Desire  of  all  nations.  But  it  was  reserved  for  later  ages 
that  a  nation  should  be  bom  in  a  day,  and  the  kingdoms 
of  this  world  become  the  kingdoms  of  God  and  of  his 
Christ,  of  which  time  even  yet  our  views  are  distant  and 
imperfect,  though  some  faint  glimpses  of  a  happier  state  of 
things  are  occasionally  offered  to  us. 

Having  thus  considered  briefly  the  condition  of  mankind 
at  large,  and  the  relation  in  which  they  stand  towards  their 
Almighty  Ruler,  it  may  be  desirable  to  return  to  the  notice 
of  some  of  those  institutions  by  which  the  Jews  were  for 
1500  years  distinguished,  as  those  to  whom  pertained  "the 
adoption,  and  the  glory,  and  the  covenants,  and  the  giving 
of  the  law,  and  the  service  of  God,  and  the  promises,"  as 
well  as  to  those  plans  of  their  own  devising,  in  which  they 
more  or  less  departed  from  the  will  of  God.  All  law  and 
social  order,  under  whatever  foiTn  it  may  be  organized  and 
administered,  is  necessarily  based  upon  this  great  principle, 
that  there  is  a  self-existent  God,  the  Creator  and  Disposer 
of  all  things,  to  whom  all  are  accountable ;  and  that  this 
Almighty  Being,  this  Good,  as  the  name  emphatically  de- 
notes, desires  the  welfare  of  all  his  creatures,  especially  of 
those  who  are  endowed  with  rational  powers,  who  possess 
immortal  souls.  All  religion,  natural  or  revealed,  is  based 
upon  this  principle,  and  is,  in  truth,  a  code  of  laws  pro- 


352  JEWISH  NATION. 

ceeding  from  an  almiglity,  all-perfect  Being.  Or,  to  bring 
it  more  immediately  home  to  us,  it  is  a  series  of  precepts 
delivered  to  children  by  a  wise  and  aflPectionate  Father. 

When  mankind  began  to  increase  upon  earth,  the  parent 
or  head  of  the  tribe  exercised  supreme  authority  over  his 
children  and  servants.  He  was  himself  accountable  to  no 
earthly  superior,  and  could  reward,  punish,  or  dismiss,  as 
he  thought  proper.  This  is  fully  exemplified  in  the  histories 
of  Abrabam,  Isaac,  and  Jacob.  Each  exercised  his  autho- 
rity with  an  absolute  power,  and,  as  in  the  cases  of  Ishmael, 
Esau,  and  Jacob,  Simon  and  Levi,  acted  from  what  would 
appear  personal  feelings,  rather  than  from  any  defined  code 
of  laws.  Doubtless  the  older  patriarchs  before  them  did 
the  same,  but  their  histories  are  less  fully  given.  It  is  ob- 
vious that  in  proportion  as  men  were  actuated  by  the  fear 
of  God,  their  government  would  be  exercised  with  justice 
and  kindness ;  but  wliere  this  was  wanting,  as  in  the  family 
of  Cain  before  the  flood,  and  in  the  case  of  Nimrod  after 
the  flood,  there  would  be  oppression,  violence,  and  wrong. 
Tlie  conduct  of  such  men,  in  all  ages,  may  be  thus  de- 
scribed : — 

"  To  heaven  the  proud  blasphemers  raised  their  eyes, 
And  scorn'd  the  tardy  vengeance  of  the  skies  ; 
On  earth  invincible,  they  sternly  broke 
Love's  willing  bonds,  and  Nature's  kindred  yoke. 
Mad  for  dominion,  with  remorseless  sway 
Compeird  their  reptile  bretliren  to  obey, 
And  doom'd  their  human  herds,  witli  thankless  toil, 
Like  brutes,  to  grow  and  perish  on  the  soil  ; 
Their  sole  inheritance  through  lingering  years, 
The  bread  of  misery  and  the  cup  of  tears." 

A  more  minute  description  of  such  characters  is  contained 
in  Job  xxiv,  1-12.  In  fact,  the  most  detailed  account  con- 
tained in  the  sacred  records,  with  reference  to  patriarchal 
life,  is  found  in  the  Book  of  Job.  There  we  see  the  man 
of  wealth,  influence,  and  ability,  the  object  of  respect  and 
attention,  using  his  talents  for  the  benefit  of  his  fellow- 
creatures,  and  deriving  instruction  from  the  works  of  crea- 
tion and  providence,  mourning  over  the  mixture  of  good 
and  e\il  in  this  earthly  scene,  yet  comforting  himself  in  the 
prospect  of  a  future  day  of  retribution. 

For  I  know  that  my  Redeemer  liveth, 
And  that  he  shall  stand  at  the  latter  day  upon  the  earth  ; 
And  though  after  my  skin,  worms  destroy  this  body, 
Yet  in  my  flesh  shall  I  see  God.— Job  xix,  25,  26. 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  353 

As  men  multiplied  upon  the  earth,  larger  groups  were 
formed,  called  states  and  kingdoms :  all  their  systems  may 
be  traced  up  to  the  patriarchal  source  ;  but  they  were  fre- 
quently corrupted  much.  The  Egyptians  are  considered  to 
have  been  the  first  to  introduce  kingly  government,  (see 
Gen.  xii,  15,  20,)  but  the  kings  in  those  days  were  very 
different  from  the  monarchs  of  later  times.  We  read  in 
Josh,  xii,  of  thirty-one  kings  in  a  very  small  space  of  terri- 
tory, scarcely  equal  in  extent  to  the  principality  of  Wales. 
Yet  if  their  dominions  were  small,  their  aiithority  was  still 
absolute,  as  may  be  gathered  from  the  tyrannical  proceed- 
ings of  Adoni-bezek,  Judg.  i,  and  of  Pharaoh,  Exod.  i. 

The  deliverance  of  the  Israelites  from  Egypt  was  a  direct 
act  of  Divine  power,  and  the  subjects  of  this  deliverance 
were  called  upon  to  obey  the  Lord  who  led  them  forth. 
This  was  expressly  declared  before  the  deliverance  had  been 
accomplished,  and  again  immediately  after  it,  Exod.  vi,  7, 
and  xii,  42.  The  form  of  government  thus  established  for 
the  Jews  is  rightly  deemed  a  theocracy, — a  system  in  which 
the  affairs  of  state  were  conducted  by  the  immediate  direc- 
tion of  the  Almighty.  Thus  Jehovah  was  the  King  as  well 
as  the  God  of  Israel,  and  is  continually  spoken  of  as  such. 
He  was  everywhere  present  among  them ;  not  only  as  he  is 
in  all  places,  but  by  a  special  manifestation  of  his  power  in 
the  tabernacle,  over  the  mercy-seat,  in  the  bright  cloud 
called  the  Shechinah,  to  which,  in  all  cases  requiring  direc- 
tion, the  high  priest  resorted,  as  a  prime  minister  to  an 
earthly  ruler  or  sovereign  prince,  to  receive  orders  and  di- 
rections. There  is  in  Num.  ix,  17-23,  a  beautiful  descrip- 
tion of  the  manner  in  which  the  Lord  guided  his  people 
through  the  wilderness,  and  the  Psalmist  refers  repeatedly 
to  God  as  his  leader,  Psa.  xxxii,  8  ;  Ixxiii,  24.  And  it  must 
be  remembered  that  the  earlier  proceedings  of  this  remark- 
able people  were  foreseen  and  directed  by  Jehovah,  as  is 
plain  from  Acts  vii,  1-20,  and  from  Genesis  xv.  However, 
it  is  from  the  departure  out  of  Egypt  that  their  polity  as  a 
nation  is  to  be  dated. 

"  The  covenant  of  Jehovah  with  the  Hebrew  people," 
says  an  eminent  wiiter,  "and  their  oath  by  which  they 
bound  their  allegiance  to  Jehovah,  their  God  and  King, 
was,  that  they  should  receive  and  obey  the  laws  which  he 
should  appoint  as  their  Supreme  Governor,  with  a  particu- 


354  JEWISH    NATION. 

lar  engagement  to  keep  themselves  from  the  idolatry  of  the 
nations  round  about  them,  whether  the  idolatry  they  had 
seen  while  they  dwelt  in  the  land  of  Egypt,  or  that  which 
they  had  observed  in  the  nations  by  which  they  passed  to 
the  promised  land.  In  keeping  this  allegiance  to  Jehovah, 
as  their  immediate  and  supreme  Lord,  they  were  to  expect 
the  blessings  of  God's  immediate  and  peculiar  protection  in 
the  security  of  their  liberty,  peace,  and  prosperity,  against 
all  attempts  of  their  idolatrous  neighbors ;  but  if  they 
should  break  their  allegiance  to  Jehovah,  or  forsake  the 
covenant  of  Jehovah  by  going  and  serving  other  gods  and 
worshiping  them,  that  they  should  forfeit  these  blessings 
of  Divine  protection,  and  the  anger  of  Jehovah  should  be 
kindled  against  the  land,  to  bring  upon  it  all  the  curses  that 
are  written  in  the  Book  of  Deuteronomy,  xxix,  25-27. 
The  substance,  then,  of  this  solemn  transaction  between 
God  and  the  Israelites,  which  may  be  called  the  original 
contract  of  the  Hebrew  government,  was  this :  If  the  He- 
brews would  voluntarily  consent  to  receive  Jehovah  as  their 
Lord  and  King,  to  keep  his  covenant  and  laws,  to  honor 
and  worship  him  as  the  one  true  God,  in  opposition  to  all 
idolatry,  then,  though  God,  as  sovereign  of  the  world,  rules 
over  all  the  nations  of  the  earth,  and  all  nations  are  under 
the  general  care  of  his  providence,  he  would  govern  the 
Hebrew  nation  by  peculiar  laws  of  his  own  appointment, 
and  bless  it  with  a  more  immediate  and  particular  protec- 
tion ;  he  would  secure  to  it  the  invaluable  privileges  of  true 
religion,  together  with  liberty,  peace,  and  prosperity,  as  a 
favored  people  above  all  other  nations. 


CHAPTER  XIL 

HISTORY  OF  THE  JEWISH  POLITY. 

Every  well-regulated  government  must  possess  a  code  of 
laws  known  to  the  people,  that  their  conduct  may  be  regu- 
lated accordingly.  Thus  it  pleased  God  to  deliver  to  the 
Jews  the  laws  of  Moses,  by  which  they  should  be  governed. 
These  have  been  already  considered.  We  have  now  to 
notice  the  ruhng  or  administrative  power.     The  first  raagis- 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  355 

trates  were  appointed,  as  the  ministers  of  the  Most  High, 
upon  the  recommendation  of  Jethro,  Exod.  xviii,  14-26. 
They  were  very  similar  in  degrees  to  the  officers  under  the 
Saxon  government  in  England.  Probably  King  Alfred  de- 
rived the  idea  from  this  portion  of  holy  writ.  But  it  is  evi- 
dent, that  previously  and  subsequently  to  their  appoint- 
ment, there  were  officers  of  the  children  of  Israel.  Moses 
had  his  previous  communications  with  the  people  through 
officers — their  elders ;  these  could  not  have  been  the 
Egyptian  task-masters,  and  it  is  not  said  that  others  were 
appointed  in  their  places.  From  comparing  Deut.  xxix,  10, 
and  Josh,  xxiii,  2,  it  is  considered  that  these  representatives 
were  the  heads  of  tribes  or  families,  and  judges  or  officers. 
Michaelis  is  of  opinion  that,  like  the  members  of  the  British - 
House  of  Commons,  they  acted  on  their  own  responsibility, 
not  being  required  to  take  instructions  from  their  constituents. 
The  heads  and  princes  of  tribes  at  that  time  in  office,  are 
mentioned  by  name  in  Num.  i,  and  as  late  as  the  time  of 
David  (1  Chron.  xxvii,  16)  they  are  enumerated.  The  man- 
ner of  their  appointment,  their  succession,  their  peculiar 
powers,  are  all  unknown  to  us ;  but  it  is  evident  that  they 
possessed  considerable  authority,  and  that,  with  their  assist- 
ance, public  affairs  might  proceed  without  a  king,  or  judge, 
or  legislative  body.  In  the  absence  of  these,  the  tribes 
would  be  a  confederacy  of  tAvelve  states,  in  which  the 
strongest  would  have  some  predominance  ;  for  instance,  those 
of  Judah,  Ephraim,  and  Manasseh.  See  Josh,  xvii,  15-17  ; 
Judg.  i.  Under  these  the  judges  would  act,  Judg.  xi,  5 ; 
1  Sam.  viii,  4.  Their  continuance,  when  the  Jews  should 
settle  in  the  promised  land,  is  expressly  provided  for,  Deut. 
xvi,  18.  The  term  "  make,"  seems  there  to  indicate,  being 
appointed  by,  or  in  behalf  of  the  people,  and  not  as  by 
Divine  interposition.  There  was  also  a  counsel  of  seventy, 
who  appear  to  have  been  counselors  or  assistants  to  Moses, 
and  not  originally  a  judicial  tribunal.  See  the  history. 
Num.  xi,  24,  25.  After  the  captivity  in  Babylon,  this 
council,  called  the  Sanhedrim,  ruled  the  nation ;  they  were 
similar  in  numbers,  but  their  character  was  greatly  altered. 
The  judges  were  usually  selected  from  the  tribe  of  Levi,  as 
were  also  the  Shoterim  or  scribes.  That  tribe  was  most 
conversant  with  the  law  ;  they  studied  it,  and  became  inter- 
preters of  its  difficulties,  which  led  to  the  introduction  of 


366  JEWISH  NATION. 

interpretations  making  void  the  law,  as  our  blessed  Saviour 
declared,  Matt,  xv,  9.  But  in  earlier  times  they  seemed  to 
have  been  useful,  2  Chron.  xix,  5-11,  and  xxxv,  3.  In 
addition  to  the  high  priest  or  ecclesiastical  ruler,  who  was 
the  immediate  channel  for  intercourse  with  God,  there  was 
a  supreme  ruler  for  civil  affairs,  to  whom  even  the  former 
was  sometimes  subordinate.  Moses  was  the  first  of  these, 
then  Joshua,  whose  appointment  is  recorded  Num.  xxvii,  18. 
After  him,  the  elders,  who  had  formed  his  council,  carried 
on  his  government,  though  no  individual  was  especially  set 
apart  as  chief  ruler.  But  the  people  continued  to  obey 
them,  and  served  the  Lord,  "  all  the  days  of  the  ciders  that 
overlived  Joshua,  and  which  had  known  all  the  works  of  the 
Lord  that  he  had  done  for  Israel." 

After  their  decease,  a  state  of  anarchy  followed ;  this  was 
connected  with  disobedience  to  the  Divine  commands,  Judg. 
ii,  12-15.  Then  indi\iduals  were  appointed  from  time  to 
time,  who  exercised  the  rule  as  judges.  These  appear  to 
have  been  selected  according  to  the  Divine  appointment; 
their  mission  and  authority  were  usually  sanctioned  and 
confirmed  by  some  manifestations  of  Di\dne  power.  In 
some  cases  they  were  individuals  called  upon  by  the  public 
voice,  to  act  under  some  pressing  emergency,  like  Jephthah, 
and  in  some  cases  their  authority  was  restricted  to  a  part  of 
Israel.  They  had  no  power  to  enact  new  laws,  but  to  ad- 
judge causes  according  to  the  law,  and  were  the  executive 
power.  They  had  no  regular  funds,  except  their  private 
incomes,  which  in  some  cases  appear  to  have  been  con- 
siderable, for  instance,  fifty  asses ;  but  the  people  were  ac- 
customed to  bring  them  presents  or  offerings.  This  form 
of  government  continued  from  the  death  of  Joshua  to  the 
appointment  of  Saul  as  king  of  Israel ;  a  space,  according 
to  Hales,  of  470  years,  but  Samuel  seems  chiefly  to  have 
confined  himself  to  the  office  of  a  prophet  during  the  latter 
part  of  his  life. 

In  the  first  Book  of  Samuel,  the  appointment  of  Saul,  the 
first  king,  is  recorded,  and  the  circumstances  are  minutely 
related.  It  was  plainly  stated  that  the  desiring  of  a  king 
was  displeasing  to  the  Lord,  for  it  was  in  effect  casting  off 
the  rule  of  Jehovah,  and  ending  the  theocracy.  It  had, 
however,  been  foreseen  and  provided  for,  Deut.  x\ii,  14-20. 
The  first  appointment  showed  the  people  the  evil  of  their 


LAWS   AND    POLITY.  357 

wishes,  but  it  was  afterwards  ovemiled  for  good.  The  royal 
power  continued  in  the  family  of  Da\nd  until  the  captivity, 
and  from  this  line  of  earthly  monarchs  our  blessed  Saviour, 
according  to  the  flesh,  descended. 

Laws  were  provided  especially  for  the  guidance  of  the 
kings,  but  they  were  soon  departed  from.  According  to  the 
neglect  or  observance  of  these  precepts,  the  king  and  the 
people  suffered  or  prospered.  Though  in  many  respects 
absolute,  the  kings  could  not  depart  from  or  change  the  law. 
Thus  even  Ahab  could  not  compel  Naboth  to  break  the 
law  of  Jehovah,  and  could  only  put  him  to  death  by  means 
of  a  false  charge  against  him,  1  Kings  xxii.  The  monarchs 
were  the  vicegerents  of  Jehovah,  bound  to  consult  him 
through  the  high  priest  on  all  occasions  of  emergency,  and 
limited  by  the  revelations  and  precepts  of  God.  Nor  were 
they  permitted  to  take  the  office  of  ministers  on  themselves 
in  affairs  relating  to  religious  worship ;  for  doing  this,  Saul 
was  found  guilty  of  his  second  act  of  disobedience.  King 
Uzziah  also  was  struck  with  leprosy  when  thus  engaged. 
Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  alone  is  at  once  the  King,  the  Pro- 
phet, and  the  Priest  of  his  obedient  people,  and  by  his  one 
offering  he  hath  perfected  forever  them  that  are  sanctified. 

Saul's  inauguration  was  not  attended  with  any  pomp  or 
splendor,  nor  was  any  provision  made  for  his  administra- 
tion ;  but  when  settled  on  the  throne,  he  seems  to  have  taken 
whatever  he  thought  desirable.  Such  is  the  character  of 
any  government  when  first  adopted,  among  a  people  of  sim- 
ple habits.  Many  in  the  present  day  will  be  aware  that 
the  natives  of  the  South  Sea  Islands,  before  the  introduc- 
tion of  a  regular  system  of  law  and  government,  were  often 
required  to  yield  their  property  to  those  who  possessed 
power  ;  and  that  a  queen  among  them,  who  had  been  con- 
verted to  Christianity,  owned  that  "  it  was  not  right  to  take 
a  little  man's  tree  without  his  permission,"  and  sent  him  a 
present  as  an  equivalent  for  the  loss  which  had  been  inflict- 
ed on  him  by  her  attendants. 

There  is  no  express  statement  in  the  history  of  the  kings 
of  Israel,  as  to  the  amount  of  their  revenues,  but  these  ap- 
pear to  have  been  chiefly  paid  in  kind,  as  is  still  the  case  in 
the  court  of  Abyssinia.  Voluntary  offerings  and  presents 
were  frequently  made,  1  Sam.  ix,  27.  Lands  formerly  un- 
cultivated or  confiscated,  became  annexed  to  the  crown,  and 


858  JEWISH  NATION. 

were  given  as  rewards  to  the  servants  of  the  kings,  1  Sam. 
viii,  14 ;  xxii,  1 ;  while  foreign  tribute  and  commerce  were 
afterwards  added  to  their  resources,  2  Sam.  viii ;  1  Kings 
X,  28,  29.  It  is  evident,  however,  that  the  greatest  mon- 
archs  took  much  interest  in  what  would  now  be  called 
farming,  1  Chron.  xxvii,  26-31  ;  2  Chron.  xxvi,  10;  Amos 
vii,  1 ;  Prov.  xxvii,  23-27. 

The  worst  feature  in  the  conduct  of  Saul  was  his  self- 
will.  He  forgot  the  true  character  of  God,  the  Supreme 
Ruler  of  Israel,  and  aimed  at  being  an  independent  monarch, 
after  the  manner  of  the  nations.  He  did  not  lay  aside  the 
worship  of  Jehovah,  but  he  failed  in  obedience  to  the 
Divine  command,  and  for  this  he  was  set  aside,  1  Sam.  xv, 
22,  23.  In  the  same  spirit,  he  sought  to  slay  David.  His 
son,  Jonathan,  showed  more  submission  to  the  will  of  God, 
to  which  his  noble  disinterested  friendship  for  David  is  to 
be  traced,  and  it  may  therefore  be  observed  that  he  better 
understood  that  Israel  was  a  theocracy, — a  government 
under  the  immediate  direction  of  the  Lord.  The  people 
were  left  for  some  time  to  a  king  after  their  own  heart, 
Hos.  xiii,  11.  Even  after  the  death  of  Saul,  for  awhile  they 
rebelled  against  the  word  of  God,  2  Sam.  v,  2.  In  all  this 
David  was  a  type  of  Christ  the  Lord,  who  reigns  as  a  king 
over  those  that  once  rejected  him.  Many  passages  in  the 
Psalms  are  spoken  with  this  two-fold  signification ;  for  in- 
stance, Psa.  xviii ;  Ixxxix,  20-35  ;  cxxxii,  17, 18.  Nor  must 
the  important  prophecy  and  promise  contained  in  2  Sam.  vii, 
be  here  unnoticed. 

David's  government  was  more  agreeable  to  the  principles 
of  the  Divine  law  than  that  of  his  predecessor,  but  in  some 
respects  it  seems  to  have  pressed  upon  the  people.  Solo- 
mon's rule  was  still  more  oppressive.  The  separation  of 
Israel  and  Judah  into  two  distinct  kingdoms  may  be  traced 
to  several  anterior  events.  As  it  has  been  observed,  from 
the  very  beginning  of  the  Israelitish  nation  the  two  tribes 
of  Judah  and  Ephraim  had  disputed  the  pre-eminence. 
The  former  flourished  in  the  number  of  its  families,  as  well 
as  in  its  power  and  wealth,  being  allied  to  the  Pharaohs  in 
Egypt,  1  Chron.  iv,  19;  v,  2.  Judah  also  marched  first 
in  the  sojourning  in  the  desert,  and  reckoned  upon  a  do- 
minion which  had  been  promised.  Gen.  xlix,  10.  The 
other,  Ephraim,  depended  on  the  great  name  of  Joseph, 


LAWS  AND   POLITY.  359 

and  the  blessing  pronounced  by  Jacob,  1  Chron.  v,  2 ;  Gen. 
xlviii,  5-19;  became  powerful  in  Egypt,  1  Chron.  vii,  24; 
and  afterwards  increased  in  strength  and  prosperity.  Josh, 
xvii,  14  ;  Judg.  i,  35.  These  tribes  were  also  among  the 
first  to  receive  their  allotments,  when  the  land  was  divided. 
Josh,  xviii,  2.  In  after  years,  the  tribe  of  Ephraim  was 
distinguished  for  its  turbulent  and  warlike  spirit,  Judg.  viii,  1 , 
and  xii,  1-4.  That  of  Judah  was  probably  more  disposed 
for  peace,  Judg.  xv,  11.  It  is  not  mentioned  in  the  his- 
tories of  Deborah  or  of  Gideon.  The  elevation  of  David 
completed  the  mortification  of  Ephraim,  and  the  northern 
tribes ;  and  it  is  remarkable  that  during  his  long  continued 
wanderings,  he  never  quitted  the  territories  of  Judah  and 
Benjamin,  On  the  death  of  Saul  two  thrones  existed  for  a 
time.  David  felt  his  weakness,  2  Sam.  iii,  39.  The  choice 
of  Jerusalem,  for  the  capital  and  centre  of  worship,  mstead 
of  Shiloh,  could  not  but  displease  the  tribe  of  Ephraim, 
Psalm  Ixxviii,  6Y,  68.  Afterwards  a  small  spark  kindled  a 
flame,  which  Sheba  knew  how  to  excite,  in  the  northern 
tribes,  2  Sam.  xix,  41 ;  xx,  1.  Finally  the  privileges  en- 
joyed by  the  tribe  of  Judah,  and  the  advantages  of  their 
situation  for  commerce  with  Egypt,  Idumea,  and  Arabia, 
with  the  intrigues  of  Jeroboam,  (1  Kings  xi,  2Y,  28,)  pro- 
duced the  revolution  which  broke  out  upon  the  death  of 
Solomon,  1  Kings  xii. 

All  this,  however,  was  wisely  overruled  for  good.  The 
change  was  not  made  until  the  Mosaic  law  had  subsisted 
for  some  time,  under  circumstances  which  proved  that  it 
did  not  depend  upon  any  human  power,  and  the  revolt  was 
expressly  spoken  of  as  being  permitted  by  God,  (1  Kings 
xii,  24,  and  xiv,  8,)  for  wise  reasons ;  for  instance,  the  pre- 
venting the  entire  prevalence  of  idolatry  and  corruption  in 
the  descendants  of  Israel,  2  Chron.  xi,  13-17.  This  was 
still  more  evident  in  after  times,  2  Chron.  xxx,  6  ;  xxxiv,  33; 
Hosea  xi,  12  ;  Amos  vii,  12.  The  kingdom  of  Judah  be- 
came a  place  of  refuge  for  those  who  were  piously  disposed, 
and  its  inhabitants  were  often  warned  to  avoid  the  example 
of  their  neighbors.  In  some  respects,  the  effect  would  be 
similar  to  that  produced  in  our  own  land  and  elsewhere,  by 
the  removals  of  Protestants  under  persecution,  from  one 
coimtry  to  another,  which  has  undoubtedly  been  useful  in 
keepmg  alive  a  sense  of  the  dangers  and  errors  of  Popery. 


860  JEWISH   NATION. 

There  might  even  have  been  seasons  of  temporary  reformation 
in  Israel,  when  the  prospects  of  true  rehgion  in  Judah  were 
discouraging,  but  the  reverse  was  far  more  commonly  the  case. 

Through  the  history  of  the  kings,  there  are  many  par- 
ticulars which  show  that  the  monarchy  was  limited  in 
power,  although  the  king  was  in  many  respects  absolute. 
The  courts  of  Europe,  in  ancient  times,  resembled  Eastern 
courts  much  more  than  they  do  under  modern  arrangements. 
Thousands  of  followers  are  supported,  hence  large  supplies 
of  provisions  are  needed,  1  Kings  iv,  22,  23.  The  king  sits 
in  the  midst  of  his  nobles  in  regular  pomp,  and  is  rarely 
seen  by  the  mass  of  his  people.  "  Seeing  the  king"  is  often 
spoken  of  in  Scripture  as  an  especial  privilege.  (See  Isa. 
xxxiii,  11;  Matt,  xviii,  10.)  The  prostrations  which  were 
usual  on  entering  the  royal  presence,  are  frequently  referred 
to,  1  Sam.  xxiv,  8;  Matt,  ii,  11.  But  in  this  respect,  the 
Jews  avoided  otfering  the  idolatrous  homage  common  among 
heathen  nations,  Esth.  iii,  2.  The  Eastern  sovereigns  were, 
and  still  are,  fond  of  appearing  in  splendid  robes,  and  adorned 
with  jewels.  Acts  xii,  21 ;  Esth.  vi,  8,  9  ;  1  Kings  xxii,  10. 
The  kings  of  Persia  are  described  as  choosing  those  apart- 
ments for  the  reception  of  ambassadors,  in  which,  according 
to  the  season,  the  light  will  best  display  their  magnificence. 
These  points,  however,  belong  rather  to  the  "Manners 
AND  Customs  of  the  Jews,"  as  to  which  many  particulars 
may  be  found  in  pages  28,  36,  51. 

The  principal  officers  or  persons  about  the  king  were,  the 
prime  minister,  literally  the  second  to  the  monarch,  1  Sam. 
xxiii,  17  ;  2  Chron.  xxviii,  7.  The  royal  counselors,  1  Kings 
xii,  6  ;  Isa.  iii,  3  ;  Jer.  xxvi,  11.  The  recorder  or  chronicler, 
an  office  of  some  importance  in  days  when  reading  and 
writing  were  comparatively  little  known,  2  Sam.  viii,  1 6  ; 
1  Kings  iv,  3  ;  2  Kings  xviii,  18.  See  also  Esth.  vi,  1,  and 
X,  2.  The  scribe,  or  secretary  of  state,  who  wrote  from  the 
dictation  of  the  monarch,  2  Sam.  viii,  17,  and  xx,  25 ;  Isa. 
XXX vi,  3.  The  prophets  also,  and  the  high  priests,  were  fre- 
quently admitted,  as  being  commissioned  from  God.  This 
is  plain  throughout  the  history  of  David  and  his  successors. 
Also  the  governor  of  the  household  may  be  mentioned, 
1  Kings  xviii,  3  ;  2  Kings  xviii,  18  ;  Isa.  xxii,  22.  The  king 
had  the  power  of  issuing  edicts  or  laws,  in  doing  which  he 
generally  took  the  advice  of  his  counselors,  Jen  xxxvi,  xxxviii. 


LAWS   AND   POLITY.  361 

But  these  were  not  to  supersede  the  written  law,  as  record- 
ed by  Moses ;  the  royal  edicts  ought  to  have  carried  out  the 
same  principles,  Deut.  xvii,  18,  19.  Yet  how  often  was 
the  law  forgotten.  We  read,  2  Kings  xxii,  of  the  just  con- 
sternation of  Josiah,  when  a  copy  of  the  law  was  found,  at 
discovering  how  widely  he  and  his  people  had  departed 
from  its  precepts.  He  then  purged  the  temple  of  its  sym- 
bols of  idolatrous  worship,  and  burned  the  vessels  used  in 
the  service  of  Baal.  The  sins  of  Israel  had  already  brought 
down  the  judgments  threatened  against  them,  and  now  the 
iniquity  of  Judah  was  fast  involving  them  in  the  like  ruin, 
2  Kings  xvii,  18-23.  Before  forty  years  more  had  elapsed, 
the  land  was  left  "  utterly  desolate  and  utterly  spoiled,  for 
the  Lord  had  spoken  the  word,  '  to  rest  and  enjoy  her  Sab- 
baths ;'  "  according  to  the  emphatic  language  of  Moses,  "  be- 
cause it  did  not  rest  in  your  Sabbaths  when  ye  dwelt  upon 
it."  The  utter  desolation  that  followed,  is  strikingly  de- 
scribed by  Isaiah,  ch.  ix,  18,  19. 

"  For  wickedness  burneth  as  the  fire, 
It  shall  devour  the  briers  and  thorns, 
And  shall  kindle  in  the  thickets  of  the  forest. 
And  they  shall  mount  up,  like  the  lifting  up  of  smoke. 
Through  the  wrath  of  the  Lord  of  hosts  is  the  land  darkened, 
And  the  people  shall  be  as  the  fuel  of  the  fire." 

It  is  sufficient  to  state,  that  the  banished  Jews  were, 
after  a  time  at  least,  treated  rather  as  colonists  than  slaves, 
so  that  many,  perhaps  most  of  them,  remained  behind. 
They  had  a  ruler  and  magistrates  from  their  own  number, 
with  power  to  judge  and  punish,  as  appears  from  the  apo- 
cryphal history  of  Susanna.  Those  who  returned  to  their 
own  land  were  governed  by  Zerubbabel  or  Sheshbazzar, 
and  Joshua  the  high  priest,  (Ezra  ii,  8,  and  iv,  3  ;  Hag.  ii,  4, 
and  Zech.  iii,  8,  and  iv,  6,)  and  afterwards  by  Ezra  and 
Nehemiah,  whose  proceedings  are  particularly  recorded. 
With  their  histories  the  Old  Testament  closes,  giving  indi- 
cations which  confirm  the  accounts  of  uninspired  writers, 
that  the  Jews  were  subject  to  the  Roman  government,  as 
well  as  to  the  earlier  monarchs  of  Persia  and  Syria.  The 
high  priests  exercised  the  authority,  both  civil  and  ecclesi- 
astical, assisted  by  the  council  of  the  Sanhedrim,  whose 
power  was  increased  and  established,  so  that  the  govern- 
ment was  in  fact  an  oligarchy,  being  vested  in  a  few  chief 
leaders.  .-^  ^ivi 

16 


362  JEWISH  NATION. 

The  oppressions  of  the  Syrian  rulers  led  to  attempts  at 
self-defense,  and  the  rising  of  the  Maccabees,  after  three 
hundred  years  had  passed,  who,  in  some  respects,  imitated 
the  proceedings  of  the  judges  of  old.  That  house  governed 
for  one  hundred  and  twenty-six  years,  until  the  dispute 
between  Hyrcanus  and  his  brother  Aristobulus,  led  to  the 
subjugation  of  Judea  under  the  power  of  the  Romans,  who 
continued  Hyrcanus  in  his  office  as  high  priest,  but  gave 
the  government  to  Antipater,  an  Idumsean  proselyte.  He 
was  succeeded  by  his  son  Herod,  in  whose  family  the  chief 
power  remained  until  it  was  taken  from  them  and  given  to 
a  Roman  deputy.  The  true  Shiloh,  the  Prince  of  Peace, 
even  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ,  had  now  come,  and  the  sceptre 
was  departed  from  Judah.  Even  this  slight  reference 
to  the  history  of  preceding  times  will  show  that  the  faith 
of  true  believers  among  the  Jews,  in  all  ages,  had  respect 
to  the  promised  Messiah,  the  only  Mediator  between  God 
and  man. 

"  E'en  they  who  dragg'd  to  Shinar's  fiery  sand, 
Till'd  with  reluctant  strength  the  stranger's  land  ; 
Who  sadly  told  the  slow  revolving  years, 
And  steep'd  the  captive's  bitter  bread  in  tears, — 
Would  oft  awake  to  chant  their  future  fame, 
And  from  the  skies  their  lingering  Saviour  claim. 
His  promised  aid  could  every  fear  control, 
This  nerved  the  warrior's  heart,  this  steel'dthe  martyr's  soul." 

Such  has  not  been  the  case  with  their  descendants  in 
later  ages,  during  the  centuries  that  have  elapsed  since  the 
Romans  destroyed  their  city,  A.  D.  VO.  Time  would  fail  to 
tell  the  ridiculous  and  blasphemous  legends  which  have 
gained  credence  among  the  Rabbinical  Jews,  and  which 
describe  the  Almighty  God  as  existing  in  a  human  form ; — 
as  playing  with  the  leviathan  ;  as  daily  occupied  in  studying 
the  law ;  in  administering  justice, — and  providing  food  for 
mankind,  according  to  certain  fixed  rules;  as  weeping, 
groaning,  and  roaring,  interpreting  literally  the  figurative 
style  of  prophecy  ;  and  taking  little  or  no  care  of  the  Gen- 
tile world.  All  these  wrong  notions  may  be  fitly  summed 
up  in  one  sentence  of  the  Psalmist,  "  Thou  thoughtest  that 
I  was  altogether  such  a  one  as  thyself,  but  I  will  reprove 
thee."  The  false  and  wicked  traditions  of  the  rabbins 
respecting  the  history  of  our  blessed  Redeemer  are  best 
suppressed.  The  Jewish  views  as  to  a  future  state  are  also 
gross  and  sensual,  and  closely  allied  to  the  fables  of  Mo- 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  363 

hammedanism,  rather  than  to  the  representations  of  Scrip- 
ture, Psa.  xvii,  15  ;  xlix,  15 ;  Isa.  xxxiii,  17-24. 

The  Roman  government  was  in  many  respects  oppres- 
sive to  the  Jewish  nation,  but  it  was  their  own  continued 
obstinacy  and  willful  rejection  of  Christ  and  his  salvation 
which  hastened  their  destruction.  Being  now  left  to  them- 
selves, they  became  a  prey  to  the  sinful  dissensions  and 
excesses  which  ended  in  the  ruin  of  their  city  and  temple, 
A.  D.  10.  After  the  destruction  of  Jerusalem,  the  Sanhe- 
drim, or  Jewish  council,  continued  to  exist.  It  was  settled 
at  Tiberias,  and  governed  the  people  by  its  influence,  draw- 
ing still  closer  the  bondage  of  traditional  observances  which 
took  the  place  of  the  temple  worship  and  sacrifices,  the 
chief  rabbi  ruling  the  nation  instead  of  the  high  priest.  The 
Eastern  Jews  afterwards  chose  another  head,  whom  they 
termed  the  Prince  of  the  captivity,  and,  in  secret,  the  de- 
struction of  their  enemies  was  predicted,  by  the  name  of 
the  Edomites.  But  our  limits  forbid  any  attempt  to  trace 
the  varying  fortunes  of  the  Jews  who  were  dispersed 
throughout  the  Roman  empire,  and  have  remained  scat- 
tered to  the  present  time. 

The  regular  establishment  of  synagogues,  wherever  the 
Jews  have  been  allowed  to  settle,  has  formed  particular 
points  for  union  and  intercourse  through  the  whole  commu- 
nity ;  while  their  regular  maintenance  of  men  learned  in  the 
law,  to  keep  up  a  course  of  instruction  for  youth,  has  also 
preserved  them  separate  from  the  people  among  whom 
they  dwelt.  Every  duty  and  pursuit  of  life,  every  hour  of 
the  day,  was  subjected  to  some  special  observance  ;  among 
which,  daily  lamentations  for  the  degraded  state  of  their 
nation  assisted  in  keeping  up  the  distinction  by  which  the 
Jew  was  still  held  in  subjection  to  his  spiritual  guides. 
About  A.  D.  260,  the  Mishna,  or  written  code  of  traditional 
law,  proceeded  from  the  school  of  Tiberias,  and  by  furnish- 
ing interpretations  to  the  Mosaic  law,  supplied  a  new  code 
to  the  Jewish  nation,  which  itself  was  not  long  afterwards 
overlaid  by  the  Gemara,  a  sort  of  additional  code ;  these 
together  composing  the  Talmud,  and  containing  a  set  of 
adjudged  rules  or  cases  to  guide  or  mislead  the  Jews  still 
farther  from  the  principles  of  Scripture.  In  later  times, 
many  of  the  Jews  have  cast  off  this  mental  bondage ;  and 
while  some  have  resolved  to  keep  close  to  the  Old  Testa- 


364  JEWISH  NATION. 


1 


ment  alone,  and  are  thus  placed  within  the  reach  of  the 
efforts  of  Chi-istian  friends,  like  the  scribe  to  whom  Jesus 
could  say,  "  Thou  art  not  far  from  the  kingdom  of  God," 
Mark  xii,  34  ;  others  have  quite  renounced  all  religious  pro- 
fessions, and  devoted  themselves  to  the  cares  and  pleasures 
of  this  life,  like  too  many  of  the  nominal  Christians  around 
them.  This  is  very  much  the  case  where  Popery  and  irreli- 
gion  prevail ;  and  the  expression,  *'  he  lives  like  a  Chris- 
tian," has  become  proverbial  among  the  more  rigid,  to 
denote  a  profligate  and  irrehgious  character.  This  state  of 
carelessness  is  common,  though  not  peculiar  to  the  Jews 
now  settled  in  England.  Until  the  last  few  years  the  Jews 
of  Poland  and  Germany  were  far  superior  to  most  of  their 
brethren  in  strictness  and  outward  decorum,  and  some  of 
the  most  bigoted  still  continue  to  reside  in  those  lands. 
Further  particulars  as  to  the  modem  descendants  of  Israel 
may  be  found  in  a  little  work  entitled  "  The  Jew  in  all 
Nations,"  published  at  our  Book-Room.* 

Having  lost  the  fear  of  God,  they  are  enslaved  to  the 
dread  of  evil  spirits,  who,  they  say,  are  constantly  exerting 
influence  to  injure  them,  and  regularly  frequent  the  syna- 
gogues to  hear  sermons.  They  believe  that  if  they  do  not 
rise  betimes  in  the  morning,  and  immediately  wash  them- 
selves, the  evil  spirits  are  sure  to  get  hold  upon  them ;  for 
their  prayers  have  only  power  to  keep  these  enemies  in 
check  for  a  certain  number  of  hours.  AH  these  rules  show 
that  they  trust  to  their  own  strength,  and  they  have  also 
many  charms  and  "  curious  arts,"  which  are  foolishly  sup- 
posed to  be  useful. 

The  condition  of  Jewish  females  is  especially  degraded. 
They  are  not  always,  even  in  the  present  day,  taught  to 
read,  for  it  is  considered  unnecessary  for  them  to  study  the 
law.  In  the  synagogues,  also,  the  women  are  confined  to 
their  own  latticed  gallery,  and  can  see  or  hear  little  of  the 
public  worship  below.  How  different  from  the  direction  of 
Moses,  Deut.  xxxi,  12.  The  male  children  begin  to  learn 
the  Hebrew  text  at  five  years ;  but,  from  the  age  of  ten,  the 
Talmud  and  its  commentaries  are  chiefly  studied. 

Although  the  labors  of  Christian  ministers  and  teachers 
among  the  Jews  have,  in  many  cases,  been  crowned  with 
success ;  yet  still,  as  a  body,  they  remain  insensible  to  the 

*  No.  307  Youth's  Library. 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  365 

sin  of  their  nation  in  crucifying  the  Lord  of  glory,  and 
rather  regard  their  dispersed  and  wretched  state  as  a  pun- 
ishment for  other  offenses.  They  continue  to  await  the 
coming  of  the  Messiah,  who,  as  some  of  them  say,  is  sitting 
in  disguise  as  a  beggar  at  the  gates  of  Rome.  Others  look 
for  two  Messiahs,  the  one  suffering  and  the  other  triumph- 
ant. Thus  the  children  of  Israel  have  abode  many  days 
without  a  king,  and  without  a  prince,  and  without  a  sacri- 
fice :  but  they  shall  fear  the  Lord  and  his  goodness  in  the 
latter  days.  On  the  annual  return  of  the  date  of  the  de- 
struction of  their  temple,  some  of  the  Jews  have  long  been 
accustomed  to  assemble  near  its  site,  to  mourn  over  its 
ruins,  and  read  the  Book  of  Lamentations.  To  this  occa- 
sion the  following  lines  refer  : — 

"  Where  yon  sad  ruin  crowns  Moriah's  steep, 
Thy  humble  remnant,  Judah  !  sit  and  weep. 
Thy  gathering  thousands  press  the  hallow'd  ground ; 
Bare  are  their  feet,  their  loins  with  sackcloth  bound. 
The  book  of  sorrows  to  their  hearts  they  press, 
And  tears  and  songs  bewail  their  deep  distress. 
Yet  hark  again  !  amidst  their  stifling  sighs, 
A  louder,  loftier  chant  begins  to  rise  ; 
The  voice  of  prayer  cheers  Judah's  weeping  throng. 
Faith  warms  the  strain,  and  hope  renews  the  song." 


CHAPTER  XIII. 
COURTS     OF     JUSTICE. 

While  mankind  remained  in  the  small  divisions  of  families 
or  tribes,  the  father  of  the  family,  or  head  of  the  tribe, 
possessed  and  exercised  the  authority  of  a  judge.  All 
quarrels  or  complaints  would  be  brought  before  him,  or  de- 
cided by  him  as  the  legal  ruler.  When  these  bodies  of  men 
became  more  numerous,  or  the  head  proved  infirm,  others 
would  be  appointed  to  discharge  his  duties,  which,  by  de- 
grees, in  every  community,  led  to  some  method  for  the  re- 
gular administration  of  justice.  In  the  patriarchal  times, 
we  find  many  proofs  that  matters  were  thus  decided ;  and 
when  the  first  stage  of  society  was  passed,  it  appears  that 
judgment  was  regularly  given  in  public,  usually  at  the  gate 
of  the  city,  which  was  the  place  of  chief  resort  and  passage. 
All  public  business  in  the  East  seems  to  have  been  trans- 


366  JEWISH    NATION. 

acted  there,  for  which  purpose  spaces  were  left  at  the  gate, 
where  buildings  were  often  erected.  Abraham  bargained 
for  his  purchase  of  a  sepulchre  at  the  gate  of  the  city  of 
Hebron,  Gen.  xxiii,  10.  Hamor  and  his  son  negotiated 
with  Jacob  and  his  sons  at  the  gate  of  the  city,  Gen. 
xxxiv,  24.  The  transaction  between  Boaz  and  the  nearer 
kinsman  of  Ruth  was  at  the  gate  of  Bethlehem. 

This  explains  Job  v,  4,  where  the  children  of  the  wicked 
are  said  to  be  crushed  in  the  gate,  and  Psalm  cxxvii,  3, 
where  it  is  said  of  those  blessed  with  families,  that  they 
shall  not  be  ashamed  when  they  speak  with  their  enemies 
in  the  gate.  Also  Prov.  xxii,  22, — 'Neither  oppress  the 
afflicted  in  the  gate ;  and  Lam.  v,  14, — The  elders  have  ceased 
from  the  gate.  Many  consider  that  our  Lord  makes  allu- 
sion to  this,  (Matt,  xvi,  18,)  when  he  says  the  gates  of  hell 
shall  not  prevail  against  his  Chm'ch.  In  Eastern  cities 
generally  the  same  custom  has  existed.  The  Turkish  sove- 
reign has  long  been  called  the  Porte,  a  name  derived  from 
the  performance  of  public  business  at  the  gate  of  the  palace. 

When  the  Israelites  left  Egypt,  they  had  no  arranged 
system  for  the  administration  of  justice,  which  doubtless 
had  been  carried  before  the  Egyptian  tribunals.  All  mat- 
ters and  disputes,  therefore,  were  brought  before  Moses, 
who  devoted  much  of  his  time  to  settle  them.  But  it  was 
obvious  that  some  other  plan  must  be  adopted  among  so 
vast  a  multitude.  The  particulars  of  the  change  are  re- 
corded, Exod.  xviii.  Before  the  Israelites  entered  Canaan, 
the  administration  of  justice  there  throughout  the  land  was 
noticed,  Deut.  xvi,  18,  and  the  appointment  of  administra- 
tors for  every  locality  was  an  important  measure.  In  the 
following  chapter,  various  provisions  relative  to  their  pro- 
ceedings are  given,  with  directions  for  obtaining  further 
judgment  in  matters  of  importance.  There  is  no  particular 
account  of  them  before  the  captivity,  except  in  reference 
to  the  proceedings  of  Jehoshaphat,  2  Chron.  xix,  8-11, 
though  at  first  the  judges,  and  afterwards  the  kings,  super- 
intended the  administration  of  justice  in  matters  of  difficulty. 
Thus  Deborah  appears  to  have  acted,  (Judg.  iv,  5,)  while 
the  general  administration  was  conducted  by  others,  proba- 
bly those  noticed  ch.  v,  10.  The  Eastern  moUahs,  or  men 
of  the  law,  have  been  thus  distinguished  in  later  days. 

After  the  captivity,  Ezra  appointed  two  classes  of  judges, 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  367 

Ezra  vii,  25  ;  but  difficult  cases  were  still  brought  before  the 
high  priest  or  ruler,  until  the  time  of  the  Maccabees,  when 
a  supreme  tribunal  was  appointed.  This  was  the  Sanhedrim, 
or  great  council,  as  it  is  often  called  in  the  New  Testament, 
consisting  of  seventy-two  persons,  under  a  president  and 
vice-president.  From  the  time  of  B.  C.  the  office  of  presi- 
dent was  held  distinct  from  that  of  high  priest,  and  became 
of  considerable  importance.  The  method  of  appointment 
to  this  council  is  not  clearly  stated,  but  it  consisted  of  three 
classes, — these  were  the  chief  priests,  the  elders,  perhaps 
the  heads  of  tribes  and  the  scribes,  or  men  learned  in  the 
law.  This  council  appears  to  have  sat  daily,  at  first  in  a 
room  between  the  inner  and  outer  courts  of  the  temple, 
afterwards  in  other  places.  Its  authority  was  very  great ; 
it  decided  all  causes  brought  before  it  from  inferior  courts, 
and  directed  the  affairs  of  the  nation  generally.  Especially 
it  decided  upon  those  who  claimed  to  be  prophets,  who 
were  numerous  in  the  latter  days  of  the  Roman  state. 
From  this  council  a  deputation  was  sent  to  John  the 
Baptist,  in  order  to  examine  his  pretensions  and  proceedings, 
John  i,  19.  This  council  also  sat  upon  our  blessed  Lord, 
but  the  assembly  by  which  he  was  condemned  was  hastily 
and  illegally  summoned,  and  came  together  determined  to 
condemn  him,  (Matt,  xxvi,  59,)  seeking  false  witnesses  to 
give  a  color  to  their  proceedings.  When  the  Roman  power 
became  paramount  in  Judea,  the  power  of  ordering  the 
punishment  of  death  was  taken  from  this  assembly.  The 
stoning  of  Stephen  was  a  tumultuous  act,  not  a  regular  sen- 
tence. Acts  vii,  57.  When  the  rulers  were  powerful  and 
arbitrary,  this  council  could  not  exercise  much  power. 
Under  Herod,  who,  at  the  beginning  of  his  reign,  had  caused 
the  whole  number,  except  three,  to  be  beheaded,  they  could 
not  act  with  independence.  Latterly,  though  the  Romans 
ruled  in  Palestine,  the  Sanhedrim  exercised  more  inde- 
pendent authority  in  matters  connected  with  the  Jewish 
privileges  and  religion.  Thus  it  filled  up  the  measure  of 
the  national  iniquity,  by  its  bitter  persecution  of  the  Chris- 
tians, of  which  many  details  are  recorded  in  the  Acts  of  the 
apostles,  and  also  in  the  Epistles.  The  seventy  elders 
chosen  by  Moses  in  the  wilderness,  under  the  Divine  direc- 
tion, seem  to  have  been  a  council,  or  senate,  that  assisted 
him  in  governing  the  people.     There  is  no  trace  of  theii 


368  JEWISH  NATION. 

having  sat  as  judges,  or  mention  of  them  after  the  arrival 
in  Canaan. 

There  were  also  smaller  councils  of  local  authority. 
These  are  thought  to  be  referred  to  by  our  blessed  Lord, 
as  the  judgment,  Matt,  v,  22.  But  the  inferior  courts  of 
judicature  are  not  clearly  described  by  any  writers  upon 
whom  reliance  can  be  placed ;  for  the  Talmudists  are  not 
worthy  of  credit.  However,  there  were  judges  in  every 
city  and  town,  who  were  assisted  by  two  Levites,  that  tribe 
being  devoted  to  the  study  of  the  law,  and  best  skilled  in 
its  precepts.  In  reference  to  these  tribunals,  great  care  was 
taken  to  inculcate  the  necessity  for  the  strict  and  correct 
administration  of  justice  and  the  prohibition  of  bribery. 
See  Exod.  xxiii,  8;  Lev.  xix,  15;  Deut.  i,  17-19.  They 
were  even  cautioned  against  leaning  too  much  to  the  feel- 
ings of  compassion.  Lev.  xix,  15.  They  were  in  fact  the 
representatives  of  the  Most  High  as  the  Supreme  Ruler, 
and  therefore  must  act  without  respect  of  persons.  Yet 
bribery  and  corruption  prevailed  with  other  evils,  which  the 
prophets  frequently  reproved.  Amos  even  testifies  to  the 
taking  a  bribe  so  paltry  as  a  pair  of  wooden  sandals,  ch.  ii,  6. 
The  administration  of  justice  among  heathen  and  Moham- 
medan nations,  in  the  East,  has  usually  been  very  corrupt, 
and  the  judges  have  almost  openly  exacted  bribes  from  the 
parties  applying  to  them. 

There  were  also  courts  of  judicature  held  in  the  syna- 
gogues before  the  rulers  of  them,  who  inflicted  punishment 
by  scourging.  Matt,  x,  17;  Acts  xxii,  19,  20.  Something 
of  this  sort  still  exists  among  the  Jews,  and  frequently,  as 
of  old,  it  is  made  the  means  of  oppression  and  persecution. 
The  assemblies  mentioned  by  St.  James,  (ch.  ii,  2,)  are  con- 
cluded to  have  been  similar  courts  among  the  early  Chris- 
tians. The  context  evidently  refers  to  matters  of  judgment, 
in  which  the  poor  were  oppressed,  rather  than  to  public 
worship,  though  it  must  be  admitted  that  too  little  atten- 
tion has  been  given  to  the  accommodation  of  the  poor,  even 
in  our  days.  There  has  been,  however,  considerable  im- 
provement in  this  respect  in  our  own  land. 

Hired  pleaders  or  advocates  were  unknown  in  earjy  times. 
Each  man  spoke  in  his  own  cause.  Of  this  there  are  many 
proofs,  Prov.  xviii,  17;  2  Sam.  xix,  15;  Jer.  xxvi,  12-15; 
but  none  could  be  stronger  than  that  of  the  two  mother?, 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  369 

who  pleaded  their  own  causes  before  King  Solomon,  in  a 
simple  and  summary  way,  as  much  as,  or  more  so  than 
would  now  be  done  in  a  police  ojQ&ce.  Sometimes  a  friend, 
or  even  a  bystander,  known  for  liis  wisdom,  might  be  asked 
to  assist,  Job  xxix,  1-11;  Isa.  i,  17.  The  Hebrew  name 
for  a  widow  signifies  one  that  is  dumb.  But  when  the 
Romans  had  the  power,  regular  advocates  were  employed, 
especially  in  matters  that  fell  under  their  judicature.  A 
notable  specimen  of  this  class  was  Tertullus,  who  was 
brought  forward  by  the  high  priest  to  vilify  the  apostle 
Paul,  Acts  xxiv,  1. 

Complaints  were  first  made  to  the  judges,  who  sent  offi-' 
cers  with  the  complaining  party  to  bring  the  accused  before 
them.  This  is  described  by  our  Saviour,  Matt,  v,  25.  In 
the  latter  times,  judges  were  attended  by  notaries,  who 
wrote  their  sentences.  There  is  probably  an  allusion  to  this 
before  the  captivity,  Isa.  x,  1,  (margin.)  The  judges  sat 
while  the  accused  stood,  Matt,  xxvii,  11. 


CHAPTER  XIV. 
PUNISHMENTS  INFLICTED  AMONG  THE  JEWS. 

The  tribunals  having  been  described,  the  course  of  pro- 
ceeding next  claims  attention.  The  transactions  of  these 
courts  of  judicature  necessarily  would  be  preserved  in  writing. 
Josephus  describes  a  repository  at  Jerusalem  for  such  docu- 
ments, Bell.  Jud.  vi,  6,  3.  The  tribunals  were  attended 
by  officers  to  execute  their  proceedings ;  such  are  the  officers. 
Matt.  V,  25.  There  were  others,  whose  business  it  was  to 
exact  the  fines  imposed  by  the  tribunal,  and  also  the  tor- 
mentors, who  inflicted  torture  or  punishments.  Early  in 
the  day  was  the  lawful  time  for  administering  justice,  as 
appears  from  Jer.  xxi,  12  :  "0  house  of  David,  thus  saith 
the  Lord;  Execute  judgment  in  the  morning,  and  deliver 
him  that  is  spoiled  out  of  the  hand  of  the  oppressor,  lest 
my  fury  go  out  like  fire,  and  burn  that  none  can  quench  it, 
because  of  the  evil  of  your  doings."  The  Talmud  states 
that  it  was  not  lawful  to  proceed  in  the  night,  or  to  execute 
sentences  on  the  day  they  were  pronounced.  Neither  were 
16* 


370 


JEWISH  NATION. 


sentences  to  be  executed  on  festivals.  All  these  regula- 
tions were  openly  violated  in  the  case  of  our  blessed  Lord. 
"  He  was  taken  from  prison  and  from  judgment,"  Isa.  liii,  8. 
In  criminal  cases,  one  of  the  first  proceedings  was  to  exhort 
the  criminal  to  confess,  if  guilty.  If  he  denied  the  act,  the 
accusation  was  gone  into,  and  the  accused  was  then  heard. 
Of  this  Nicodemus  reminded  the  Sanhedrim,  who  were 
ready  to  prejudge  our  Lord  :  John  vii,  51  :  "  Doth  our  law 
judge  any  man  before  it  hear  him,  and  know  what  he 
doeth  ?"  In  the  last  and  worst  times  of  the  Jews,  tlieir 
judges  did  not  hesitate  to  act  with  harshness  towards  the 
'  accused,  as  in  the  case  of  our  Lord,  and  would  even  cause 
the  prisoner  to  be  silenced  by  blows.  Thus  Paul  was  treated. 
Acts  xxiii,  2.  Such  injustice  is  too  frequently  exhibited  in 
the  East  at  the  present  time. 


A  WITNESS  HOLDING  UP  HIS  RIGHT  HAND. 


One  peculiar  manifestation  of  equity  in  the  Jewish  law, 
was  that  regarding  testimony,  that  there  should  be  the  con- 
current testimony  of  two  or  three  credible  witnesses,  Num. 
XXXV,  30 ;  Deut.  xvii,  6,  7 ;  xix,  25.  These  directions  do 
not  object  to  the  evidence  of  females ;  nor  is  there  reason 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  371 

to  suppose  they  were  excluded,  when  the  manner  in  which 
Jewish  females  came  forward  is  considered,  as  shown  by 
Esther,  Abigail,  Deborah,  and  others.  But  in  later  times, 
when  the  nation  had  become  more  mixed  up  with  heathen 
Eastern  nations,  Josephus  relates  that  the  testimony  of 
females,  as  well  as  that  of  servants,  was  excluded.  Here  is 
one  instance,  to  which  many  others  might  be  added,  of  the 
advantage  that  females  derive  from  regard  to  the  precepts 
of  the  Bible.  Even  in  the  present  day  the  minds  of  modern 
Jewesses  appear  to  be  in  a  neglected  and  uncultivated  state. 

The  witness,  as  already  stated,  hstened  to  the  adjuration 
read,  held  up  his  right  hand,  and  replied,  Amen.  This  ex- 
plains Psa.  cxliv,  8  ;  Lev.  v,  1  ;  1  Kings  viii,  31.  Every 
one  solemnly  adjured,  by  legal  authority,  was  constrained 
to  reply :  thus  the  Lord  Jesus  Christ  answered  to  the  in- 
quiry of  the  high  priest,  "  I  adjure  thee  by  the  living  God, 
that  thou  tell  us  whether  thou  be  the  Christ,  the  Son  of 
God !"  "  Thou  hast  said ;  nevertheless,  I  say  unto  you, 
Hereafter  shall  ye  see  the  Son  of  man  sitting  on  the  right 
hand  of  power,  and  coming  in  the  clouds  of  heaven."  False 
testimony  was  severely  punished,  Exod.  xx,  16  ;  xxiii,  1-3  ; 
yet  in  evil  times  there  was  much  perjury,  and  witnesses 
were  suborned,  1  Kings  xxi,  16  ;  Acts  vi,  11. 

At  times,  when  there  was  no  other  means  of  coming  to 
a  decision,  casting  lots  was  resorted  to,  Prov.  xvi,  33  ;  xviii, 
18;  1  Sam.  xiv,  41 ;  Josh,  vii,  16.  This  would  generally 
be  in  cases  respecting  property,  and  might  arise  from  the 
inquiry  by  Urim  and  Thummim,  which  seems  to  have  been 
a  proceeding  of  this  nature,  to  discover  guilty  parties,  or 
decide  in  doubtful  cases.  Written  docimients  were  pro- 
duced, else  they  would  not  have  been  taken  in  affairs  of 
property,  Jer.  xxxii,  14.  The  trial  of  the  woman  sus- 
pected of  adultery  was  an  appeal  of  this  nature,  and  it  is 
remarkable  that  a  somewhat  similar  proceeding  has  been 
found  among  some  of  the  African  tribes. 

The  most  usual  manner  of  executing  criminals  among  the 
Jews  was  by  stoning ;  of  this  there  were  instances  in  the 
wilderness,  Lev.  xxiv.  14 ;  Num.  xv,  35.  At  that  time 
there  were  no  regular  executioners  of  the  law,  but  the 
whole  assembly  proceeded  to  put  the  sentence  into  execu- 
tion. This  custom  was  continued,  the  witnesses  themselves 
casting  the  first  stone,  Deut.  xvii,  '7.     In  the  time  of  Ste- 


372  JEWISH  NATION. 

phen  the  witnesses  threw  ofif  their  clothes,  that  they  might 
be  the  more  active  in  the  fatal  work,  committing  their  gar- 
ments to  the  care  of  Saul,  who  afterwards  was  known  as 
the  great  apostle  Paul.  Here  also  should  be  noticed  our 
Lord's  words  to  the  Phaiisees,  respecting  the  woman  taken 
in  adultery,  John  viii,  1. 

It  was  not  unfrequent  for  persons  of  rank  to  execute 
criminals  and  prisoners  :  Gideon  did  so,  (Judg.  viii,  21,) 
and  perhaps  Samuel,  1  Sam,  xv,  33.  In  other  cases  a  mili- 
tary officer  was  sent  to  execute  the  prisoner.  Thus  Benaiah 
put  Joab  and  Adonijah  to  death.  A  soldier,  or  one  of  the 
guard  of  Herod,  was  sent  to  behead  John  the  Baptist. 
Such  customs  still  remain  in  the  East.  If  the  criminal  were 
in  the  presence  of  the  king  they  covered  his  face,  as  Ha- 
man's,  (Esth.  vii,  8,)  and  in  such  cases  the  execution  often 
immediately  followed  the  sentence. 

In  the  latter  days  of  the  Jewish  state,  the  power  and 
influence  of  the  Romans  introduced  many  of  their  laws  and 
judicial  practices,  especially  in  all  cases  of  importance. 

Upon  the  whole,  these  were  far  more  equitable  than 
those  of  the  absolute  monarchs  of  the  East,  yet  corruption 
in  many  instances  prevailed  so  far  as  to  influence  their  deci- 
sions. The  principle  of  the  Roman  law  was  the  same  as 
the  English.  No  one  could  be  condemned  before  he  was 
heard.  Paul  reminds  Lysias  of  this,  Acts  xxii,  25  ;  and 
Felix  and  Festus  acted  upon  it.  But  that  privilege  was 
restricted  to  Roman  citizens :  others  were  liable  to  caprice 
and  punishment  at  the  will  of  the  magistrates.  Thus  Paul 
and  Silas  were  treated  at  Philippi ;  and  it  was  not  until 
the  judges  found  they  were  Roman  citizens,  that  they  were 
alarmed  for  having  so  done.  Acts  xvi,  37.  Even  from  the 
courts  of  the  provincial  governors,  appeal  was  permitted  to 
the  tribunal  of  the  emperor,  for  Roman  citizens,  not  for 
provincials  or  slaves. 

Where  the  Romans  settled,  there  they  erected  their  tri- 
bunals in  a  permanent  form.  That  of  Pilate  was  raised  on 
a  platform,  the  floor  ornamented  with  a  tesselated  pave- 
ment, formed  of  pieces  of  marble  or  stones  of  various  co- 
lors, John  xix,  13.  Such  Roman  remains  have  repeatedly 
been  found  in  Britain.  Observe,  Pilate  made  at  least  five 
attempts  to  protect  Jesus  from  the  fury  of  his  accusers  ;  but 
while  this  testifies  to  the  innocence  of  our  blessed  Lord,  in 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  373 

whom  no  fault  was  found,  it  only  aggravates  the  conduct 
of  the  Roman  governor,  in  sacrificing  the  innocent.  He 
feared  their  accusations  on  account  of  his  own  evil  practices, 
and  therefore  he  sacrificed  Jesus. 

The  Romans  allowed  the  nations  they  had  subjugated  to 
retain  their  own  tribunals,  as  appears  not  only  in  the  case 
of  the  Jewish  Sanhedrim,  but  in  that  of  the  Areopagus  at 
Athens,  (Acts  xvii)  and  the  proceedings  at  Ephesus, 
Acts  xix.  All  of  these  seem  to  have  been  allowed  full 
liberty  in  the  exercise  of  their  religions. 

Among  the  arbitrary  heathens  of  the  East,  the  great  ob- 
ject or  design  of  punishment  was  forgotten.  The  good  of 
the  community  was  less  sought  than  executing  vengeance 
on  the  individual.  But  the  reverse  was  manifested  in  the 
Jewish  law,  Deut.  xiii,  11;  xvii,  13;  xix,  20.  "And  all 
Israel  shall  hear  and  fear,  and  shall  do  no  more  any  such 
wickedness  as  this  is  among  you."  This  principle  led  to 
the  departure  from  the  heathen  practice  of  punishing  the 
family  with  the  offender  ;  the  contrary  is  expressly  directed, 
Deut.  xxiv,  16  ;  and  wherever  this  rule  appears  to  be  de- 
parted from,  on  examination  there  will  be  found  reason  to 
believe  that  the  members  had  been  sharers  in  the  guilt,  as 
in  the  case  of  the  family  of  Achan,  (Josh,  vii,)  who  must 
have  been  privy  to  his  act. 

The  inferior  punishments  were  the  following  : — 

Scourging.  This  was  the  most  common.  St.  Paul  states 
that  he  had  endured  it  five  times,  2  Cor.  xi,  24  ;  and  in  his 
day  it  was  inflicted  even  in  the  synagogues,  Matt,  x,  17  ; 
xxiii,  34;  Acts  xxii,  19.  But  the  law  expressly  provided 
a  limit  to  this  infliction :  "  Forty  stripes  he  may  give  him, 
and  not  exceed,  lest  if  he  should  exceed,  and  beat  him 
above  these,  with  many  stripes,  then  thy  brother  should 
seem  vile  unto  thee,"  Deut,  xxv  3  ;  that  is,  lest  he  should 
be  so  lacerated  or  injured  as  to  be  despised  or  contempti- 
ble. These  stripes  were  usually  inflicted  by  a  whip  with 
three  thongs,  thirteen  blows  making  up  the  number  to 
thirty-nine  stripes  ;  when  more  severe  punishment  was  in- 
tended, pieces  of  bone,  metal,  or  thorns,  were  fixed  on  the 
end  of  the  thongs.  These  were  called  scorpions,  1  Kings 
xii,  14.  The  Roman  scourging  by  rods  was  far  more  severe, 
always  disgraceful,  and  sometimes  mortal.  Christ  was  thus 
scourged,  John  xix,  1.     Paul  also  was  beaten  with  rods. 


374  JEWISH    NATION. 

Retaliation  was  directed  in  certain  cases  of  personal  in- 
jury, Exod.  xxi,  24 ;  but  other  satisfaction  was  usually  pro- 
vided, if  the  injured  person  would  accept  it.  Afterwards 
this  law  was  perverted  by  the  Jews  to  justify  personal  re- 
venge. Matt.  V,  39. 

Restitution  was  for  injuries  done  to  the  property  of 
others,  either  unintentional  or  designed.  In  the  latter  case, 
corporal  punishment  was  sometimes  added.  See  Lev. 
xxiv,  18;  Exod.  xxi,  32-36,  and  xxii,  7-9.  A  law  was 
made  in  reference  to  damage  caused  by  fire,  Exod.  xxii,  6 ; 
this  was  evidently  prospective,  as  they  were  then  in  the 
wilderness.  Fines  were  sometimes  fixed,  Deut.  xxii,  19-29  ; 
at  other  times  they  were  left  to  the  will  of  the  judge, 
Exod.  xxi,  32.  The  sin  and  trespass-offerings,  Lev.  iv,  and 
vi,  were  also,  in  some  respects,  fines,  and  appHed  to  injuries 
of  this  nature.  Compensation  was  permitted,  but  forbid- 
den where  Hfe  was  lost,  Exod.  xxi,  28-30. 

Imprisonment,  as  a  punishment,  was  early  in  use  among 
the  Egyptians,  Gen.  xxxix  and  xl ;  but  is  not  directed  by 
the  Jewish  law.  The  prisoner,  however,  was  kept  in  cus- 
tody until  his  trial,  Lev.  xxiv,  12  ;  Num.  xv,  34  ;  and  sub- 
sequently this  seems  to  have  been  a  punishment,  Jer. 
xxxvii,  15  ;  2  Chron.  xvi,  10;  1  Kings  xxii,  27.  In  later 
ages,  John  the  Baptist  and  Peter  were  imprisoned,  Matt,  xiv, 
and  Acts  xii.  Debtors  were  prisoners,  Matt,  xviii,  30  ;  and 
Barabbas  was  kept  as  such,  Mark  xv,  6 ;  but  probably  only 
until  trial  or  punishment.  There  was  at  Jerusalem  a  com- 
mon prison  or  public  jail,  Acts  v,  18.  In  the  old  Tes- 
tament, names  are  applied  to  prisons.  The  word  used 
(Gen.  xli,  15)  signifies  a  cistern.  Chains  are  often  men- 
tioned, Psa.  cvii,  10;  cxlix,  8;  Jer.  xl,  4;  for,  except 
the  dungeons,  these  prisons  were  considered  to  require 
additional  security.  Peter  was  bound  between  two  soldiers, 
and  stocks  were  in  use.  Acts  xvi,  24 ;  Job  xiii,  27 ;  xxxiii, 
11.  These  stocks  were  often  instruments  of  torture,  like 
those  used  in  the  bishops'  prisons  in  the  days  of  Popery,  of 
which  the  martyr  Philpot  could  say,  like  the  apostles  in 
former  times,  "  God  be  praised  that  he  hath  thought  me 
worthy  to  suffer  anything  for  his  name's  sake.  Better  it  is 
to  sit  in  the  stocks  of  this  world,  than  to  sit  in  the  stocks  of 
a  damnable  conscience." 

What  rendered  imprisonment  most  severe,  was  the  arbi- 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  375 

trary  power  possessed  by  the  jailer,  who,  in  Eastern  lands, 
is  even  now  only  responsible  for  the  person  of  his  prisoners. 
He  may  treat  them  as  he  pleases,  and  this  is  often  with  great 
harshness,  unless  liberal  pay  is  given,  where  property  or 
wealth  is  supposed  to  exist.  The  horrors  of  the  dungeon 
are  described  by  Jeremiah,  ch.  xxxvii,  16-20;  and  this 
view  adds  force  to  Psa.  Ixxix,  11,  and  cvii,  17,  If  the  pri- 
soners escaped,  the  keeper  was  liable  to  their  punishment. 
Acts  xii,  1 9.  This  explains  the  alarm  of  the  jailer.  Acts  xvi,  27. 

Slavery  was  sometimes  a  punishment,  (2  Kings  iv,  1 ; 
Exod.  xxii,  3,)  where  restitution  was  required,  which  the 
owner  was  unable  to  make.  Severity  in  observing  this  cus- 
tom is  reproved,  Neh.  v,  8. 

Banishment  and  forfeiture  of  property  were  not  known 
among  the  Jews  until  after  the  captivity.  In  earlier  days, 
when  so  much  stress  was  laid  upon  the  Jews  really  being 
a  separate  people,  the  worshipers  of  the  only  true  God, 
banishment  would  have  been  worse  than  death,  involving 
much  severity  unknown  to  us.     See  1  Sam.  xxvi,  19. 

Putting  out  the  eyes,  or  maiming,  was  not  allowed  as  a 
punishment  under  the  Mosaic  law ;  but  in  the  arbitrary 
reigns  of  evil  kings  it  was  probably  introduced.  It  still 
prevails  in  the  East.  Travelers  have  described  the  cruelties 
inflicted  by  Achmed,  called  Djezzar,  or  the  butcher,  the 
late  Pasha  of  Acre,  on  his  attendants,  many  of  whom  had 
lost  an  eye,  or  ear,  or  an  arm,  others  had  their  noses  slit ; 
nor  were  any  means  of  redress  open  to  them.  Another 
painful  punishment  Avas  plucking  the  hair  from  the  head  or 
heard.     This  also  belonged  to  later  times.     Isa.  1,  6. 

Excommunication  was  in  fact  a  banishment  from  pri^a- 
leges,  which  in  case  of  penitence  might  be  restored.  The 
first  express  mention  of  it  is  found  Ezra  x,  7,  8 ;  Neh. 
xiii,  5.  Latterly  the  Jews  made  three  distinctions  in  this 
punishment.  The  first,  Nichri,  involved  privations,  and 
separation  from  society,  forbidding  the  culprit  to  approach 
nearer  than  seven  feet.  This  was  the  casting  out  of  the 
synagogue,  John  ix,  22  ;  xvi,  2  ;  Luke  vi,  22  ;  and  remained 
in  force  thirty  days,  unless  shortened.  The  second,  Gherem, 
was  a  more  severe  exclusion,  prohibiting  the  individual 
from  buying  and  selling,  and  including  an  anathema,  that 
is,  a  sentence  signifying  danger  of  death.  This  was  awful 
in  a  temporal  sense,  yet  more  so  if  spiritualized.     Heb.  vi,  8. 


376  JEWISH  NATION. 

The  third  description,  called  Maranatha,  prohibited  all  in- 
tercourse and  communication.  The  name,  in  the  Syriac 
language,  signified  that  the  Lord  would  come,  and  that  the 
offender  was  to  look  for  the  day  of  judgment.  Here  Jude 
14,  15,  and  2  Thess.  i,  8-10,  maybe  applied.  The  reader 
will  remember  how  it  is  said  that  our  Lord  cursed,  or  pro- 
nounced sentence  on,  the  barren  fig-tree,  Mark  xi,  21 ;  that  is, 
declared  it  should  remain  unfruitful,  an  emblem  of  the  state 
of  the  Jewish  nation,  Isa.  v,  6  ;  Psa,  Ixxx,  12  ;  Rom.  xi,  20. 
But  excommunication,  though  at  first  a  salutary  inflic- 
tion, became  at  last  a  terrible  engine  of  oppression  in  the 
hands  of  the  priesthood,  not  only  from  the  privations  and 
suflTerings  it  occasioned,  but  still  more  from  the  manner  in 
which  it  worked  upon  the  fears  and  feelings.  To  be  de- 
voted, or  accursed,  delivered  over  to  Satan,  with  solemn 
imprecations  and  ceremonies,  such  as  relinquishing  of  lights, 
and  depriving  of  spiritual  privileges,  was  indeed  severe. 
The  Romish  priesthood,  assuming  power,  under  the  Chris- 
tian dispensation,  were  eager  to  avail  themselves  of  it,  as  is 
prophetically  described.  Rev.  xiii,  IV ;  and  bitter  sufferings 
were  thus  occasioned  to  the  Protestants  and  reformers.  No 
one  who  reads  the  records  of  Foxe  or  Strype,  can  treat  this 
subject  with  indiff"erence,  or  wish  for  the  restoration  of  such 
proceedings  as  still  exist  where  Popery  is  dominant,  and 
have  been  formerly  known  in  England ;  for,  to  use  the  words 
of  Cowper, — 

"  Then  priests,  with  bulls  and  briefs,  and  shaven  crowns, 
And  griping  fists,  and  unrelenting  frowns, 
Legates  and  delegates  with  powers  from  hell. 
Though  heavenly  in  pretension,  fleeced  thee  well ; 
And  to  this  hour,  to  keep  it  fresh  in  mind, 
Some  twigs  of  that  old  scourge  are  left  behind." 

How  different  from  the  principles  of  the  apostles,  2  Cor. 
i,  24 ;  1  Pet.  v,  3. 

The  crimes  which  were  punished  with  loss  of  life,  were 
called  sins  unto  death,  or  worthy  of  death,  1  John  v,  16 ; 
Deut.  xxi,  22.  Those  guilty  of  them  were  called  sons  of 
death,  1  Sam.  xx,  31 ;  xx^d,  16 ;  according  to  the  figurative 
style  which  was  then  common.  Stoning  was  the  usual 
mode  of  putting  to  death,  where  no  special  method  was 
enjoined,  Deut.  xiii,  9,  10.  It  is  said  that  the  criminal  was 
placed  on  an  elevation,  thrown  violently  down,  and  stoned 
until  he  was  crushed  by  the  blows.     The  people  often 


LAWS  AND  POLITY. 


377 


showed  their  eagerness  to  stone  our  Saviour  and  his  follow- 
ers, John  viii,  59  ;  x,  31 ;  Acts  vii,  58 ;  xiv,  19  ;  Mark  xii,  4 ; 
Matt,  xxiii,  37. 

Those  slain  by  the  sword  were  put  to  death  in  any  way 
the  executioner  thought  proper,  often  cut  down,  and,  as  it 
were,  hacked  to  pieces,'  1  Kings  ii,  25-34.  This  was  for 
blood-guiltiness.  The  same  punishment  was  sometimes  in- 
flicted on  whole  cities,  or  large  masses  of  offenders ;  which 
then  assumed  the  form  of  military  execution,  and  included 
beheading  the  chief  offenders. 


STONING  TO  DEATH. 


Sometimes,  after  stoning,  the  body  was  consumed  by  fire. 
Burning  alive,  though  very  ancient,  was  not  common. 
Judah  sentenced  Tamar  to  it  as  a  punishment  for  profligacy. 
Gen.  xxxviii,  24.  Cases  of  a  similar  kind  are  noticed  in  the 
law  of  Moses,  Lev.  xx,  14  ;  xxi,  9.  The  fiery  furnace,  or  pit 
of  fire,  used  as  a  punishment  by  the  Assyrian  monarch,  was 
probably  resorted  to  in  order  to  strike  awe,  Dan.  iii.  But 
though  unusual,  the  sentence  was  not  unprecedented,  the 
furnace  was  "  wont  to  be  heated." 

Casting  down  from  an  eminence,  (Luke  iv,  29,)  was  a 
punishment  in  common  use  among  the  Romans,  but  not  so 
with  the  Jews.  The  death  of  Jezebel  was  most  likely  a 
sudden  opportune  thought,  2  Kings  ix,  33.  Death  by 
drowning  is  alluded  to  by  Christ,  Matt,  xviii,  6.  It  was 
in  use  among  neighboring  countries,  from  whom  the  Gali- 
leans probably  adopted  it.  It  is  mentioned  by  Josephus, 
as  having  been  adopted  in  reference  to  some  partisans  of 
Herod,     Bruising  or  pounding  in  a  mortar  was  an  Eastern 


378  JEWISH  NATION. 

punishment,  whicli  is  still  used  among  the  Turks,  and  even 
allowed  as  a  privilege  by  their  lawyers.  It  may  be  alluded 
to,  Prov.  xxvii,  22. 

Cutting  asunder  was  less  frequent  among  the  Jews  than 
in  other  Oriental  nations.  It  is  mentioned,  Heb.  xi,  37. 
There  is  a  Jewish  tradition  that  Isaiah  thus  perished  in  the 
reign  of  Manasseh.  Beating  to  death  is  also  referred  to, 
Heb.  xi,  35.  Antiochus  inflicted  this  upon  many  in  the 
times  of  the  Maccabees.  Among  the  heathens  a  frequent 
punishment  was  exposure  to  wild  beasts,  Dan.  vi.  Paul 
refers  to  this,  1  Cor.  xv,  32 ;  2  Tim.  iv,  17. 

Crucifixion  was  a  Roman  punishment,  most  acute  and 
painful.  It  consisted  in  fastening  the  sufferer  to  two  beams 
of  wood,  placed  transversely,  by  means  of  nails  fixed  in  his 
limbs.  It  was  rendered  especially  hateful  to  the  Jews,  on 
account  of  the  exposure  of  the  body  after  death.  On  this 
account,  the  hanging  on  a  tree  was  pronounced  to  be  ac- 
cursed, and  this  rendered  the  death  of  Absalom  the  more 
remarkable  and  ignominious,  2  Sam.  xviii,  9-1 7.  When,  as 
in  his  case,  stones  were  heaped  on  the  body,  (Josh,  vii,  25,) 
the  piles  were  increased  by  passengers  throwing  stones,  to 
express  aversion.  In  very  marked  cases,  houses  were  de- 
molished, and  the  sites  used  as  receptacles  for  filth,  2  Kings 
ix,  27  ;  Dan.  ii,  5 ;  v,  29. 


CHAPTER  XV. 

TREATIES,  COVENANTS,  AND  OATHS. 

Many  of  the  Jewish  laws  and  observances  were  evidently 
designed  to  keep  them  as  a  separate  people  from  the  hea- 
then nations  by  whom  they  were  surrounded.  Thus  they 
were  kept  apart,  especially  in  the  period  between  the  re- 
turn from  the  captivity  until  the  time  of  Christ.  Since  the 
destruction  of  Jerusalem,  though  scattered  among  the  na- 
tions, they  have  remained  a  distinct  people ;  but  their  ad- 
herence to  the  laws  requiring  separation  has  been,  in  truth, 
made  void  by  traditionary  interpretations,  which  have  ex- 
cited and  maintained  in  them  even  hatred  to  Christians ;  not 
only  to  those  who,  actuated  by  the  mistaken  notions  of  the 


LAWS   AND   POLITY  879 

Church  of  Rome,  have  persecuted  the  Jews,  but  to  all  who 
diflfer  from  themselves,  whom  they  call  by  the  general  name 
of  Gentiles,  or  Goyim,  a  term  of  reproach.  The  oral  law  of 
the  Jews,  in  fact,  in  some  cases,  even  forbids  the  saving  the 
life  of  a  Gentile,  and  strongly  contrasts  with  the  precepts 
and  practice  of  inspired  men,  for  instance,  2  Kings  vi,  22 ; 
Jer.  xxix,  7;  Dan.  iv,  27  ;  Jonah  i,  12. 

Some  have  supposed  that  the  Jews  were  forbidden,  as  a 
nation,  to  form  any  alliances  or  treaties  with  the  Gentiles ; 
but  this  is  an  error,  there  is  no  law  in  the  Pentateuch  that 
forbids  such  alliances.  They  were,  indeed,  directed  to  form 
no  treaty  with  the  Canaanites  or  Amalekites.  These  were 
nations  devoted  to  destruction  by  the  Divine  judgment  for 
their  sins,  and  the  Israelites  were  appointed  as  the  instru- 
ments for  executing  these  judgments.  In  Deut  xxiii,  7,  8, 
they  were  expressly  told  not  to  abhor  the  Edomites  or 
Egyptians ;  though  they  had  suffered  heavy  wrongs  from 
both,  yet  the  fact  of  consanguinity  in  the  one  case,  and  that 
of  original  benefits  in  the  other,  were  not  to  be  forgotten. 
There  were  also  many  express  laws  in  favor  of  strangers  so- 
journing among  them.  Even  when  engaged  in  the  actual  de- 
struction of  the  Canaanites,  a  treaty  was  formed  with  the 
Gibeonites,  though  professedly  Gentiles,  as  a  matter  of 
course,  on  the  plea  that  they  came  from  a  far  country. 
Josh,  ix,  19.  And  though  this  treaty  was  formed  by  de- 
ceit, the  Jews  were  not  allowed  to  make  it  void.  The 
Gibeonites  and  their  descendants  were  known  as  a  separate 
race  for  many  generations,  and  one  of  the  offenses  of  Saul, 
for  which  his  descendants  suffered,  was  his  breach  of  this 
treaty  by  a  massacre. 

In  the  histories  of  David  and  Solomon  there  are  repeated 
references  to  their  alliances  with  the  kings  of  Tyre.  The 
former  sought  an  alliance  with  the  king  of  the  Ammonites, 
(2  Sam.  X,  2,)  and  previously  had.  consented  to  form  one 
with  the  King  of  Hamath,  2  Sam.  viii,  9.  The  Queen  of 
Sheba  came  expressly  to  form  an  alhance  with  Solomon. 
Repeated  treaties  were  made  with  the  Syrians,  Chaldeans, 
Assyrians,  and  Egyptians,  which  were  censured,  not  because 
they  were  treaties  with  those  nations,  but  because  they 
were  alliances  formed  to  obtain  aid  in  distrust  of  the  Divine 
power  and  providential  care,  involving  disputes  with  other 
nations,  not  mere  treaties  of  amity  formed  to  regulate  mutual 


380  JEWISH  NATION. 

intercourse.  Even  the  Maccabees,  whose  leading  principle 
was  to  restore  the  observance  of  the  law  of  Moses  in  its 
strictness,  did  not  hesitate  to  form  treaties  with  the  Spartans, 
Romans,  and  others. 

The  entering  upon  treaties  and  alliances  was  usually  at- 
tended by  some  symbolical  action,  especially  in  the  earliest 
times,  when  writing  was  not  generally  resorted  to.  The 
joining  of  hands  was  common  on  such  occasions.  Pro  v.  xi,  21 ; 
Ezek.  xvii,  18.  This  is  still  customary  among  the  natives 
of  India.  A  pillar,  or  heap  of  stones,  was  sometimes  erected 
as  a  memorial,  as  that  of  Galeed,  (Gen.  xxxi,  44-54,)  to 
commemorate  the  treaty  between  Laban  and  Jacob,  as 
chiefs  of  two  independent  tribes  or  families.  Sometimes  a 
gift  was  bestowed,  as  well  as  a  commemorative  name  given ; 
thus,  in  the  treaty  between  Abraham  and  Abimelech,  king 
of  Gerar,  the  patriarch  gave  seven  lambs,  and  a  well  was 
named  Beersheba,  or  the  well  of  the  oath,  to  commemorate 
the  solemn  treaty  tjien  made,  Gen.  xxi.  A  similar  trans- 
action of  Isaac  is  recorded.  Gen.  xxvi.  The  entering  into  a 
solemn  league  or  alliance  was  generally  confirmed  by  a 
sacrifice,  iq  which  the  victim  was  divided  into  parts,  between 
which  the  parties  agreeing  used  to  pass,  Gen.  xv,  10 ;  Jer. 
xxxiv,  18. 

Doubtless  there  was  a  primary  allusion  or  appeal  to  that 
Almighty  Being  to  whom  the  sacrifice  was  offered,  and  also 
a  reference  to  the  Great  Sacrifice.  It  is  supposed,  also,  that 
the  division  of  the  victims  was  a  sort  of  imprecation  upon 
themselves,  that  they  might  suffer  in  like  manner  if  they 
broke  their  oaths.  The  heathens,  also,  still  observe  the 
practice  of  slaying  a  victim  at  the  time  of  forming  a  treaty 
or  covenant.  Homer  describes  such  a  ceremony,  with  a 
reference  to  the  gods  of  the  heathens;  and  there  are,  in 
Scripture,  notices  of  direct  imprecations,  ^hich  in  other 
places  are  understood,  2  Sam.  iii,  9,  35 ;  1  Kings  ii,  23 ; 
2  Kings  vi,  31 ;  Gen.  xiv,  22 ;  Ezek.  xvii,  18. 

Several  of  the  passages  already  cited,  and  others,  show 
that  it  was  usual  to  feast  at  the  conclusion  of  an  agreement 
or  a  treaty.  This  practice,  it  need  hardly  be  said,  has  been 
preserved  in  the  public  entertainments  usual  on  such  occa- 
sions in  civilized  nations.  But  a  far  more  beautiful  emblem 
was  the  peace-offering,  at  which  the  people  feasted  in  token 
of  reconciliation  with  God,  Deut.  xii,  6,  7.    Thus,  at  the 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  381 

renewal  of  the  public  worship  of  the  Jews,  after  the  Baby- 
lonish captivity,  Nehemiah  and  Ezra  called  upon  the  mass 
of  the  people  to  eat  the  fat  and  drink  the  sweet,  and  send 
portions  unto  them  for  whom  nothing  was  prepared.  This 
spirit  of  grateful  enjoyment  and  temperate  mirth  was  con- 
nected with  all  the  Jewish  festivals,  of  which  a  full  descrip- 
tion is  given  in  Lev.  xxiii.  The  feast  of  the  passover,  espe- 
cially, was  a  type  of  the  full  atonement  which  Christ  has 
made  for  all  who  feed  on  him  in  their  hearts  by  faith,  with 
thanksgiving,  and  are  thus  delivered  from  a  worse  than 
Egyptian  bondage.  At  that  festival  the  blood  was  sprinkled 
on  the  door-posts ;  and  often  the  parties  making  covenants 
were  sprinkled  with  the  blood  of  the  victims  slain  on  that 
occasion :  this  was  also  done  to  the  Jewish  priests,  as  well 
as  to  the  altar,  on  the  day  of  their  consecration.  St,  Paul 
explains  the  gospel  meaning  of  these  observances.  Heb. 
ix,  20. 

Many  other  Scriptural  emblems  of  the  confirmation  of 
covenants  may  also  be  traced.  The  rainbow  (Gen,  ix,  12) 
was  a  token  of  the  covenant  which  God  has  made  with 
every  living  creature.  Isa.  liv,  8,  9,  shows  that  this  may 
be  spiritualized  by  the  people  of  God. 

"  Although  in  deepest  gloom  our  sky 
Affliction  may  enshroud, 
Still  faith  discerns  with  piercing  eye 
A  bow  set  in  the  cloud !" 

The  rite  of  circumcision  (Gen.  xvii,  9-11)  was  the  token 
of  the  covenant  between  God  and  the  descendants  of  Abra- 
ham. Our  Lord  Jesus  Christ  also  directed  that  bread  and 
wine  should  be  used  in  remembrance  of  him,  Matt,  xxvi, 
26-28.  The  former  symbohzes  his  body  broken  for  us  ;  the 
latter  his  blood  shed  to  make  atonement  for  the  remission 
of  our  sins,  because,  without  shedding  of  blood  there  is  no 
remission  of  sin,  Heb,  ix,  20;  xiii,  12. 

There  are  instances  in  Scripture  of  the  bestowing  of  gar- 
ments as  a  token  of  covenant.  Thus  Jonathan  clothed 
David,  1  Sam.  xviii,  4  ;  see  also  Ezek.  xvi,  8,  9  ;  Gen. 
xxiv,  53.  Modern  travelers  have  recorded  instances  of  a 
similar  kind. 

A  covenant  of  salt  is  mentioned.  Num.  xviii,  19  ;  2  Chron. 
xiii,  5.  The  well-known  property  of  salt  is  to  preserve 
from  decay ;  hence  it  became  an  emblem  of  enduring  friend- 


382  JEWISH  NATION. 

•  ship  or  agreement.  The  Jews  were  accustomed  to  use  salt 
in  all  their  sacrifices,  Lev.  ii,  13.  This  was  also  customary 
with  the  heathens,  as  Virgil  describes,  being  doubtless  de- 
rived from  the  Patriarchs.  The  eatino^  salt  together  was, 
and  still  is  considered  in  the  East,  as  forming  a  mutual  en- 
gagement, or  friendship.  Thus,  in  referring  to  benefits  for- 
merly received,  the  expression,  "The  salt  which  he  had 
eaten,"  is  used  by  an  Eastern  chief  as  striking  a  rebel  with 
remorse.  Even  the  performance  of  the  most  common 
duties  of  hospitality  is  considered  to  establish  friendly  inter- 
course, Psa.  xli,  9. 

Presents  were  frequently  bestowed  as  ratifications.  Thus 
Jacob  sought  the  favor  of  Esau,  Gen.  xxxii,  20.  Rabsha- 
keh  invited  the  Jews  (2  Kings  xviii,  31)  to  make  an  agree- 
ment with  him  by  way  of  a  present,  as  the  token  of  a  treaty 
for  their  safety. 

In  later  days,  the  terms  of  treaties  were  expressly  re- 
corded in  writing.  This  was  still  more  the  case  after  the 
captivity.  Josephus  speaks  of  the  brazen  tablets  used  by 
the  Romans.  Solemn  adjurations  were  added.  In  the 
covenants  between  Jehovah  and  his  people,  it  is  expressly 
declared  (Heb.  vi,  13)  that  because  he  could  swear  by  no 
greater,  he  swore  by  himself.  The  party  making  the  oath 
raised  the  hand  towards  heaven.  Thus  Abraham  speaks 
of  lifting  up  his  hand,  (Gen.  xiv,  22,  23,)  in  the  first  book 
of  Scripture ;  and  in  the  last  book  (Rev.  x,  5)  the  mighty 
angel  is  thus  described.  The  form  of  putting  the  hand 
under  the  thigh  of  a  superior,  (Gen.  xxiv,  2,)  may  probably 
have  given  rise  to  the  feudal  custom  of  putting  the  hands 
between  the  knees.  There  were  similar  observances  in  mat- 
ters of  common  life,  but  these  need  not  be  noticed  here. 

In  solemn  trials,  before  a  judge,  the  oath  was  taken  by 
the  judge  or  officer,  repeating  it  in  form,  and  the  person  to 
whom  it  was  put  answering.  Amen,  Amen,  so  let  it  be,  or 
Thou  hast  said  it,  or  other  words  of  like  import.  Num.  v, 
19-22  ;  1  Kings  ii,  16  ;  Deut.  xxvii,  15,  16.  At  other 
times  only  the  judge  or  presiding  party  solemnly  adjured. 
Num.  v,  22  ;  Matt,  xxvi,  64.  A  false  oath  was  a  grievous 
crime,  especially  denounced  by  the  ninth  commandment. 
Even  where  the  breach  was  less  direct,  a  trespass-offering 
was  required.  Lev.  v,  4 ;  vi,  3;  xix,  12.  Here  every  at- 
tempt to  avoid  the  constraining  power  of  a  solemn  oath  was 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  388 

included.  In  later  times  the  Jews  adopted  many  evasions 
in  order  to  get  rid  of  this  powerful  engagement,  or  to  turn 
it  to  their  own  advantage ;  and  their  rabbins,  like  the  Romish 
priesthood,  assumed  the  power  of  absolving  or  dispens- 
ing from  its  solemn  obligations.  But  the  original  view, 
even  from  patriarchal  usage,  is  fully  described  by  Balaam, 
Num.  xxxiii,  19.  It  is  indeed  a  solemn  thing  to  make  an 
oath,  and  the  levity  with  which  it  is  often  done  cannot  be 
too  much  condemned.  It  is  in  fact  an  act  of  religious  wor- 
ship, or  reverence,  to  which  our  Lord  himself,  as  man, 
submitted.  Matt,  xxvi,  64.  Paul  also  gave  an  example  of 
it  more  than  once,  Rom.  ix,  1 ;  2  Cor.  i,  23.  There  were 
other  adjurations  of  a  lower  grade,  common  chiefly  among 
the  heathens.  Gen.  xlii,  16:1  Sam.  xvii,  55  ;  xxv,  26-; 
2  Sam.  xi,  11.  "By  your  life,"  or  "  On  my  head,"  and 
other  similar  expressions,  are  still  common  in  the  East.  A 
still  lower  form  was  that  used  in  Sol.  Song  ii,  7,  "  By  the 
beasts  of  the  field."  All  these  expressions  tended  to  lighten 
the  solemn  obligations  of  an  oath,  and  to  lessen  the  abhor- 
rence of  perjury.  Our  blessed  Lord  swept  them  all  away. 
Matt.  V,  34  ;  xxiii,  26  ;  Jas.  v,  12. 

These  details  have  led  from  the  main  subject, — that  the 
Jews  did  form  treaties  with  other  nations,  and  that  these 
were  not  forbidden  or  sinful,  if  they  only  extended  to  lawful 
intercourse,  or  the  preservation  of  national  rights  and  privi- 
leges. The  most  prosperous  days  of  the  Jews  were  days 
of  peace,  and  peace  cannot  exist  among  nations  without  ex- 
press treaties,  the  terms  of  which  have  been  either  directly 
negotiated,  or  are  clearly  understood.  The  treaties  of  Solo- 
mon with  Tyre  and  Egypt  are  not  censured,  and  they  evi- 
dently were  commercial  treaties,  proceeding  on  specified 
terms.  Unless  such  a  practice  had  been  allowed,  the  Jews 
would  have  been  in  the  condition  of  the  Arabs, — their 
hand  against  every  man,  and  every  man's  hand  against 
them,  Gen.  xvi,  12  ;  but  this  never  was  the  design  of  the 
Almighty,  and  doubtless  the  alliances  of  the  Jews  with 
other  nations  were  in  some  cases  overruled  by  God  for  the 
promotion  of  true  religion.  The  wisest  and  best  of  the 
ancient  heathens  had  some  correct  notions  respecting  God, 
which  must  have  been  derived  either  from  patriarchal  tra- 
ditions, or  from  intercourse  with  the  Hebrew  nation.  This 
was    especially  the  case   between   their  return  from  the 


384  JEWISH   NATION. 

Babylonish  captivity  and  the  date  of  the  birth  of  Christ, 
at  which  time  there  was  a  general  expectation  throughout 
the  world  of  the  coming  of  some  illustrious  prince.  At 
the  time  of  the  advent  of  the  Saviour  there  was  outward 
peace  at  least  throughout  the  earth,  the  Roman  empire 
having  more  or  less  subdued  beneath  its  sway  all  the  na- 
tions of  the  known  world,  which  rendered  it  comparatively 
easy  to  preach  the  gospel  among  them.  The  Greek  prose- 
lytes, who  came  to  worship  at  Jerusalem,  had  heard  of  the 
fame  of  Jesus,  John  xii,  19-21 ;  and  the  dispersion  of  the 
Jews  in  distant  lands,  which  prevented  many  of  them  from 
the  strict  observance  of  the  ceremonial  laws,  was  hkely  to 
prepare  them  for  learning  of  the  better  and  more  perfect 
righteousness,  which  was  to  be  brought  in  by  the  Mediator 
of  the  New  Covenant,  or  Testament,  Heb.  vii,  22  ;  viii,  6. 


CHAPTER  XVI. 

WARFARE. — MILITARY  AFFAIRS. 

The  reader  will  not  expect  to  find  much  in  this  work 
about  wars  and  military  proceedings  ;  but  there  are  some 
allusions  to  those  subjects  in  the  Bible  which  must  not  be 
passed  by.  In  the  Books  of  Joshua,  Judges,  Samuel,  Kings, 
and  Chronicles,  there  are  many  accounts  of  battles  and  war- 
fare. We  find,  in  general,  that  those  who  are  described  as 
good  characters  stood  upon  their  own  defense,  while  the 
kings  who  first  attacked  others  were  bad  characters.  Of 
course,  we  do  not  here  refer  to  the  conquest  of  Canaan  by 
Joshua.  We  are  expressly  told  that  the  inhabitants  of  that 
land  were  exceedingly  wicked,  and  that  God  saw  it  need- 
ful they  should  be  destroyed,  and  the  Israelites  were  the 
executioners  of  this  just  sentence,  Gen.  xv,  16;  Exod. 
xxxiv,  10-17  ;  Lev.  xx,  23  ;  Deut.  xii,  29-31  ;  Josh,  xxiv,  11. 
We  may  observe,  that,  when  attacked  by  their  enemies, 
the  true  followers  of  the  Lord,  while  they  exerted  them- 
selves, did  not  trust  in  an  arm  of  flesh.  They  looked  to  the 
Lord  of  hosts  earnestly  in  prayer,  for  a  blessing  on  their 
arms.  Thus  Moses,  when  the  Israelites  were  attacked  by 
the  Amalekites,  Exod.  xvii,  11 ;  David,  1  Sam.  xvii,  37  ; 
2  Sam.  V,  19;  Abijah,  2  Chron.  xiii,  5,  12,  14;  Asa, 
2*Chron.   xiv,  11;  Jehoshaphat,  2  Chron.  xx ;  Hezekiah, 


LAWS  AND  POLITY. 


385 


EASTERN  SOLDIERS, 

2  Kings  xix.  Other  instances  might  be  mentioned  ;  Ezra 
viii,  21-23,  must  not  be  forgotten. 

The  walls  of  Jerusalem  are  spoken  of  in  many  places.  In 
the  Book  of  Nehemiah  we  read  of  the  care  that  was  taken 
to  repair  them  after  the  return  from  the  captivity.  The  walls 
of  Babylon  were  sixty  miles  in  circuit,  nearly  ninety  feet 
broad,  and  three  hundred  and  fifty  feet  high.  Not  a  decided 
trace  can  now  be  found  of  these  immense  masses.  Fortified 
towns  were  attacked  by  battering-rams,  and  other  engines 
of  war,  (2  Sam.  xx,  15,)  or  by  building  forts  to  shelter  the 
besiegers,  2  Kings  xxv,  1.  Fortified  towers  are  often  men- 
tioned in  Scripture,  Judg.  ix,  51.  There  also  were  towers 
in  their  vineyards  and  gardens,  to  defend  the  property 
against  robbers,  Isa.  v,  2 ;  Mat?t.  xxi,  33  ;  Cant,  vii,  4. 
Such  are  now  found  in  the  East.  The  tops  of  craggy 
rocks  were  often  fortified,  Gen.  xxv,  16  ;  Judg.  xx,  47 ; 
1  Sam.  xiv,  4.  The  strongholds  were  rocks,  or  more  fre- 
quently caves,  1  Sam.  xxiii,  29  ;  xxiv,  2,  3.  Flying  to 
hills  and  mountains  for  refuge  is  often  mentioned  in 
Scripture. 

Our  readers  will  remember,  that  gunpowder  was  not  dis- 
covered till  a  few  hundred  years  ago  ;  consequently,  fire-arms 
and  cannon  were  not  known  in  ancient  warfare.  The  mis- 
17 


386  JEWISH  NATION. 

sile  weapons  then  used  were  darts  and  javelins,  thrown  by 
the  hand  or  by  engines :  also  bows  and  arrows,  and  stones, 
thrown  by .  slings  or  machines.  Those  used  by  Uzziah, 
(2  Chron.  xxvi,  15,)  must  have  been  similar.  Arrows  are 
very  often  mentioned  in  Scripture.  As  for  slings,  the 
reader  will  at  once  remember  David's  encounter  with  Go- 
liath, (1  Sam.  xvii,)  and  how  God  enabled  David  to  prevail, 
with  a  few  smooth  pebbles  gathered  from  the  brook.  But 
sometimes  stones  were  hurled  by  the  hand,  as  those  among 
David's  men,  mentioned  1  Chron.  xii,  2. 

The  numbers  of  the  armies  mentioned  in  the  Bible  often 
seem  to  be  very  large  ;  but  in  the  East  there  are  a  great 
many  servants  and  other  followers  to  an  army :  the  num- 
bers mentioned  probably  include  these.  Also,  in  those 
days,  every  man  able  to  bear  arms  went  forth  to  war  when 
required.  Of  the  miseries  caused  by  war  there  are  many 
striking  descriptions  in  the  Bible;  perhaps  none  stronger 
than  that  which  speaks  of  the  interference  of  Oded  (2  Chron. 
xxviii)  in  behalf  of  the  people  of  Judah  when  taken  captive ; 
see  also  Deut.  xxviii,  49-58. 

Though  the  Bible  contains  many  accounts  of  war  and 
battles,  they  are  given  in  a  very  different  manner  from  the 
accounts  of  poets  or  common  historians.  There  is  nothing 
to  make  war  attractive,  or  sufficient  to  cast  a  glare  over  the 
deeds  of  the  conquerors.  War,  indeed,  cannot  be  too  much 
abhorred  by  the  real  followers  of  Christ.  Remember  the 
words  of  our  Lord,  Matt,  xxvi,  52,  "  They  that  take  the 
sword  shall  perish  with  the  sword." 

In  ancient  times,  the  warriors  wore  armor  made  of  plates 
of  metal.  We  read  of  the  armor  of  the  Philistine,  and  of 
Saul,  1  Sam.  xvii.  But  the  most  particular  and  important 
reference  to  armor  is  Eph.  vi,  11-17.  The  apostle  there 
speaks  of  the  warfare  in  -^hich  the  Christian  has  to  engage 
against  the  enemies  of  his  soul.  He  describes  each  piece 
of  armor  separately,  and  applies  it  to  some  Christian  quali- 
fication or  grace.  Thus  the  girdle  is  to  be  truth ;  the  breast- 
plate, righteousness ;  the  shoes,  or  defenses  for  the  legs,  the 
gospel  of  peace ;  the  helmet,  the  hope  of  salvation.  But 
above,  or  over  all,  the  necessity  for  the  shield  of  faith  is 
described,  as  the  means  wherewith  to  quench  the  fiery  darts 
of  the  wicked  one — the  temptations  and  doubts  of  Satan. 
The  only  weapon  of  offense  appointed  for  the  Christian  is 


LAWS   AND   POLITY. 


387 


the  sword  of  the  Spirit,  "  which  is  the  word  of  God." 
Now  these  things  show  us  the  defenses  to  be  used  by  the 
followers  of  Christ,  and  the  only  weapon  they  should  em- 
ploy to  attack  their  adversaries — The  Bible.  A  soldier 
who  was  not  skilled  in  the  use  of  his  sword,  was  very  easily 
overcome  in  ancient  times  ;  so  we  shall  do  little  against  the 
enemies  of  our  souls,  or  the  adversaries  of  the  truth,  unless 
we  are  well  versed  in  the  Scriptures.  In  this  respect  every 
Christian  should  be  "a  man  of  war  from  his  youth." 

The  panoply,  or  complete  armor,  copied  from  an  ancient 
Greek  vase,  is  here  represented.     See  Eph.  vi,  13. 


The  insufficiency  of  all  human  means,  of  armies  or  armor, 
is  shown  in  the  case  of  Goliath,  slain  with  a  pebble  from 
the  brook ;  the  army  of  Midian  and  others,  as  grass-hoppers 
for  multitude,  "  without  number,"  (Judg.  vi,  5,)  overcome 
by  three  hundred  men  with  pitchers,  torches,  and  trumpets ; 
all  the  host  of  the  Syrians  flying  at  a  mere  noise,  2  Kings 
vii,  6  ;  and  especially  the  destruction  of  186,000  men  in  one 
night,  by  the  angel  of  the  Lord,  without  a  blow  from  any 
mortal  hand,  2  Kings  xix,  36.  ^ 


388  JEWISH  NATION. 

The  Jewish  poHty  and  laws  respecting  warfare  were  pe- 
culiar to  themselves,  and,  as  well  as  their  other  institutions, 
indicated  that  they  were  under  the  Divine  government. 
The  object  and  manner  of  their  warfare  were  expressly  di- 
rected, and  not  left  to  the  mere  will  of  their  ruler.  This  is 
the  more  remarkable,  as  their  nation  of  old  was  brave,  and 
distinguished  for  courage  and  military  power;  though  on 
their  first  deliverance  from  Egypt  they  were  fearful  and 
cowardly,  and  needed  repeated  encouragements,  Num. 
xxxii,  7 ;  Deut.  i,  29  ;  Psa.  xliv,  3.  Still,  their  great  an- 
cestor, Abraham,  stands  in  history  as  the  chief  hero  in  the 
first  contest  upon  record,  and  his  conduct  in  that  contest 
was  thoroughly  disinterested,  Gen.  xiv  ; — a  sufficient  reply 
to  those  enemies  of  the  Jewish  state,  who  declare  that  no 
act  of  generosity  is  recorded  to  have  been  performed  by  any 
of  their  race. 

The  warfare  of  the  n^ation,  m  its  early  age,  was  imder- 
taken  by  them  as  executioners  of  the  Divine  justice  on  the 
smful  nations  of  Canaan,  whose  atrocities  were  such  as  to 
call  for  their  destruction.  By  this  war  they  gained  pos- 
session of  the  land  given  to  their  forefathers,  but  which  had 
been  usurped  by  the  Canaanites,  who  were  originally  from 
the  borders  of  the  Red  Sea.  The  account  of  their  proceed- 
ings occupies  the  books  of  Joshua  and  Judges,  but  the 
conflict  continued  until  the  days  of  David,  (Acts  vii,  45,) 
whose  conquests  subdued  the  Philistines,  with  other  ene- 
mies, who,  though  not  of  the  number  of  the  devoted  na- 
tions, had  encroached  on  the  land,  and  sometimes  occupied 
it  as  conquerors. 

In  reference  to  these  enemies,  as  the  Moabites,  Philis- 
tines, Ammonites,  and  Syrians,  war  was  never  to  be  under- 
taken from  the  mere  desire  of  conquest,  or  dominion ; 
though,  when  the  time  came,  the  Israelites  might  enlarge 
their  coasts  to  the  hmits  specified  Exod.  xxiii,  31 ;  Num. 
xxxiv,  3  ;  which  they  came  the  nearest  to  in  the  reigns  of 
David  and  Solomon,  1  Kings  iv,  21-24.  These  nations 
might  give  occasion  for  hostilities ;  when  that  came  to  pass, 
the  Israelites  would  proceed  according  to  the  rules  recorded, 
Deut.  XX.  In  the  first  place,  they  were  to  offer  terms  of 
peace,  and  to  allow  the  nations  to  become  tributary  to 
them, — or  if  this  were  refused,  and  a  contest  followed,  the 
jnen  might  be  slain,  but  women  and  children  were  to  be 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  389 

spared,  contrary  to  the  barbarous  usages  then  general. 
Even  this  appears  cruel ;  but  whoever  recollects  the  events 
of  the  last  European  war,  and  particularly  the  conduct  of 
the  French  armies  in  Spain  and  in  Portugal,  will  remember 
that,  on  many  occasions,  the  most  atrocious  cruelties  were 
exercised  on  all  persons  without  distinction.  The  general 
character  of  the  Jewish  warfare  is  shown  by  the  direction 
that  even  in  sieges  unnecessary  waste  was  to  be  avoided, 
and  that  fruit-trees  were  to  be  spared,  Deut.  xx,  19,  20. 
There  were,  however,  instances  of  an  opposite  kind, 
1  Chron.  xx,  1 ;  2  Kings  iii,  18. 

The  whole  of  the  able-bodied  men,  from  twenty  to  fifty 
years  of  age,  were  liable  to  military  service,  when  called 
upon,  even  including  the  priests  and  Levites,  Num.  i,  3. 
At  the  present  day,  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  the  people 
assemble  for  war  when  called  upon ;  the  practice  in  Europe, 
in  feudal  times,  was  similar.  This'  accounts  for  the  large 
armies  assembled  at  a  short  notice.  All  were  liable  to 
serve,  but  when  all  were  not  wanted,  a  part  were  selected. 
There  are  several  instances  of  this,  as  Judg.  iv,  10 ;  vi,  35. 
One  of  the  most  remarkable  narrations,  is  that  of  the  relief 
of  Jabesh  Gilead,  (1  Sam.  xi,  7,)  with  the  army  which  Saul 
summoned. 

Of  course,  these  large  bodies,  though  soon  arranged 
under  leaders  and  captains,  were  little  more  than  tumultuary 
bodies,  each  man  bringing  his  arms  and  provisions.  Jesse 
supplied  these  for  his  sons,  1  Sam.  xvii,  17.  The  time 
for  being  embodied  was  seldom  long,  and  there  were  vari- 
ous exemptions  granted, — to  those  who  had  built  a  new 
house,  and  had  not  dedicated  it ;  to  those  who  had  planted 
vines  and  olives,  but  not  eaten  of  their  produce ;  and  to 
those  who  had  betrothed  a  wife,  but  had  not  yet  taken  her 
home,  and  also  for  the  first  year  after  marriage,  Deut. 
XX,  5-9.  Even  cowards  were  permitted  to  retire,  which 
shows  the  peculiar  character  of  the  government.  These 
enactments  were  more  favorable  to  the  Jews  than  the  cus- 
toms of  the  heathens,  which  are  alluded  to  by  Homer.  In 
the  case  of  Gideon,  they  reduced  his  army  from  32,000  to 
10,000,  Judg.  vii,  3.  Afterwards  a  still  further  reduction 
was  made,  that  the  power  of  Jehovah  might  be  still  more 
remarkably  manifested,  and  the  courage  and  ardor  of  his 
followers  put  to  the  proof.   Lapping  water  from  the  hollow 


390  JEWISH  NATION. 

of  the  hand  was  considered  a  mark  of  sobriety  and  prompti- 
tude.    It  is  still  common  in  Africa. 

With  the  kings  began  the  practice  of  a  standing  army, 
1  Sam.  xiii,  1.  Saul  had  such  a  force,  consisting  of  3000 
men.  David  had  a  body  called  the  Cherethites  and  Pele- 
thites,  respecting  whom  little  is  known ;  the  Chaldee  para- 
phrast  terms  them  archers  and  slingers,  1  Chron.  xviii,  1*7. 
They  continued  faithful,  even  in  the  time  of  Absalom's 
rebellion.  David  also  regulated  a  mihtary  force  on  the 
principle  of  a  national  militia,  consisting  of  twelve  bodies  of 
24,000  men  each,  who  were  on  duty  for  a  month  alter- 
nately, 1  Chron.  xxvii,  1-15.  His  numbering  the  people 
was  probably  a  military  enrollment.  Ch.  xxi,  5. 

Subsequently  a  more  regular  force  was  kept  on  foot. 
Jehoshaphat  had  garrisons  in  his  fenced  or  fortified  cities, 

1  Chron.  xvii,  12-19.  There  were  officers  or  captains  of 
tens,  fifties,  hundreds,  ^nd  thousands,  1  Chron.  xii,  14,  20  ; 
xiii,  1 ;  xxviii,  1  ;  2  Kings  i,  9,  11,  13  ;  2  Chron.  xxv,  5. 
They  appear  to  have  worn  some  insignia  of  their  rank,  as  a 
military  girdle,  2  Sam.  xviii,  11.  There  was  a  captain  of 
the  host,  and  this  post  was  filled  by  Abner  under  Saul, 
Joab  under  David,  Amasa  under  Absalom,  and  again  under 
David.  The  authority  of  this  officer  was  great,  as  appears 
from  the  manner  in  which  Joab  repeatedly  domineered  over 
David,  and  the  mention  of  his  authority  in  2  Kings  iv,  13. 

There  are  many  instances  of  David  exposing  his  own 
person  in  battle,  until  his  people  objected  to  it,  2  Sam.  xxi, 
lY.  All  were  foot-soldiers,  until  Solomon  introduced  horses 
from  Egypt,  which  has  always  been  famous  for  its  cavalry, 

2  Chron.  ix,  25  ;  1  Kings  x,  28,  29.  Afterwards  chariots 
were  introduced,  in  which  the  kings  and  others  rode, 
1  Kmgs  xxi,  35  ;  2  Kings  ix,  25  ;  2  Chron.  xxxv,  24.  These 
had  been  previously  used  by  the  Egyptians,  Canaanites, 
and  others,  Exod.  xiv,  9;  Judg.  iv,  3  ;  Josh,  xvii,  18.  These 
chariots  of  iron  were  frequently  armed  with  scythes,  and 
were  sometimes  of  disservice  in  war.  David  destroyed  many 
that  he  took,  2  Sam.  viii,  4.  Light-armed  troops,  with 
slings,  javelins,  or  bows,  or  spearmen  with  swords  and 
spears,  formed  the  greater  part  of  the  army.  After  the 
first  shock,  in  ancient  times,  every  battle  became  a  multi- 
tude of  single  combats.  Some  remarkable  instances  are 
particularly  recorded,  1  Sam.  xxi,  21 ;  xxiii,  20-22.     In 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  391 

later  times,  under  the  Maccabees,  the  military  customs  of 
the  Jews  assimilated  more  and  more  to  those  of  other  na- 
tions. The  horrors  of  heathen,  and  even  of  Jewish  wars, 
need  not  here  be  enlarged  upon.  The  religion  of  Christ  is 
directly  opposed  to  such  practices ;  yet  while  evil  principles 
prevail  abroad,  nations  are  obliged  to  adopt  some  system 
of  defense.  But  wars  of  aggression  are  detestable,  and  it  is 
to  be  regretted  that  the  minds  of  youth  are  too  much  fami- 
liarized to  their  details.  Truly  has  the  poet  said  of  mere 
ambitious  conquerors, 

"  The  hero  scourges  not  his  age  alone, 
His  curse  to  late  posterity  is  known  ; 
He  slays  his  thousands  with  his  living  breath, 
His  tens  of  thousands  by  his  fame  in  death. 
The  steel  of  Brutus  struck  not  Caesar  dead  ; 
Caesar  in  other  lands  hath  raised  his  head, 
And  fought,  of  friends  and  foes,  on  many  a  plain 
His  millions,  captured,  fugitive,  and  slain." 

The  victories  of  Israel  of  old  were  celebrated  with  praise 
and  thanksgiving,  yet  the  soldiers  were  reminded  of  the 
nature  of  blood-guiltiness.  Num.  xxxi,  19.  There  was  a 
general  distribution  of  the  spoil,  verse  27 ;  Josh,  xxii,  8 ; 
1  Sam.  XXX,  4.  The  mode  of  commencing  warfare  varied 
according  to  circumstances.  Sometimes  a  challenge  was 
sent,  2  Kings  xiv,  8  ;  xviii,  20.  Full  particulars  are  given 
as  to  that  in  which  Jephthah  engaged,  Judg.  xi. 

There  are  many  allusions  to  warfare  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, but  the  contest  therein  described  is  of  a  spiritual 
nature ;  see  2  Tim.  ii,  3,  4  ;  iv,  V  ;  2  Cor.  x,  4.  Our  Lord 
appeared  to  Joshua  as  captain  of  the  Lord's  host,  in  order 
to  animate  him  to  his  work  ;  and  Christians  in  all  ages  may 
say  with  confidence, 

'*  Now  let  my  soul  arise 

And  tread  the  tempter  down ; 
My  Captain  leads  me  forth 

To  conquest  and  a  crown  ! 
A  feeble  saint  shall  win  the  day. 
Though  death  and  hell  obstruct  the  way  !" 


392  JEWISH   NATION. 

CHAPTER  XYII. 

EXPENSES   OF  GOVERNMENT. 

No  community  or  society  of  men  can  exist  without  pro- 
vision being  made  to  defray  the  expenses  of  the  govern- 
ment of  that  part  of  the  community  who  have  to  give  up 
their  time  and  devote  their  labor  for  the  general  benefit. 
There  may  be  individuals  who^  being  already  in  possession 
of  enough  for  their  support,  are  ready  to  devote  some  por- 
tion of  their  time,  without  remuneration  from  others,  but 
these  instances  are  necessarily  rare  ;  and  such  persons  being 
of  course  more  free  from  responsibility  and  interference,  it 
is  very  seldom  that  their  services  are  more  efficient  or  less 
expensive  in  the  end,  than  those  that  are  regularly  given 
in  return  for  a  remuneration.  These  principles  apply  to 
the  condition  of  the  Jewish  state ;  and  it  will  be  seen  that 
these  affairs  were  arranged  with  the  same  wisdom  that 
directed  every  part  of  their  polity,  and  were  equally  calcu- 
lated to  promote  mercy,  justice,  and  truth. 

The  main  principle  of  the  Jewish  government,  as  already 
remarked,  was  the  Theocracy,  or  the  Most  High  being  con- 
sidered as  their  Ruler.  The  tribe  of  Levi  were  selected  as 
his  officers ;  and  their  time  being  given  up  to  the  public 
service,  (Deut.  xxxiii,  10,)  it  was  necessary  that  they  should 
be  provided  for  at  the  public  charge ;  but  this  was  directed 
with  merciful  consideration,  not  with  the  arbitrary  exactions 
of  heathen  rulers.  Every  Jewish  family  was  placed  in 
possession  of  a  portion  of  land,  from  whence  they  derived 
support.  The  produce  would  be  according  to  the  blessing 
of  their  heavenly  King  upon  their  labors — a  portion  was 
fairly  and  equitably  to  be  rendered  to  his  service.  With 
this  view,  the  Jew  was  to  pay  the  first-fruits  and  the  tenths 
of  his  increase,  Mai.  iii,  8. 

This  contribution  included  not  only  the  first-fruits,  but 
the  first-born  of  animals,  Exod.  xxii,  29  ;  Num.  xviii,  12, 13  ; 
Deut.  xxvi,  2.  These  are  repeatedly  mentioned  in  Jewish 
history,  for  instance,  2  Chron  xxxi,  5 ;  and  were  renewed 
after  the  captivity,  Neh.  x,  35,  36.  The  amount  to  be  con- 
tributed is  not  specified  by  the  law ;  the  Talmud  states  it 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  393 

was  the  fortieth  part,  or  even  the  thirtieth  from  the  Hberal ; 
while  the  avaricious  gave  only  the  fiftieth.  The  larger  ob- 
lation was  said  to  be  made  with  a  good  eye  ;  the  other  was 
called  an  oblation  with  an  evil  eye.  Some  think  that  our 
Lord  referred  to  this,  Matt,  xx,  15.  The  first-born  of  men 
and  animals  of  the  unclean  sorts  were  redeemed  by  the 
offering  of  a  lamb  instead  of  the  latter,  and  by  certain  arti- 
cles for  the  use  of  the  Levites,  instead  of  the  former, 
Exod.  xiii,  13  ;  Deut.  xviii,  4  ;  Num.  xviii,  15,  16. 

Fruits  were  to  be  offered  when  they  were  finest,  from 
the  feast  of  Pentecost  to  that  of  Dedication;  Deut.  xxvi, 
1-11,  refers  to  the  ceremonies  used  on  that  occasion.  The 
harvest  in  Judea  begins  in  our  spring-time,  but  it  was  not 
to  be  gathered  until  the  new  sheaf  had  been  offered  after 
the  passover,  nor  might  bread  be  made  until  the  new  loaves 
were  offered  on  the  day  of  Pentecost.  This  was  thought  to 
sanctify  the  produce,  and  seems  to  be  alluded  to  Rom. 
xi,  16.  In  later  times,  the  presentation  was  a  solemn 
ceremony — the  Sanhedrim  sent  certain  priests  to  the  corn- 
filds  near  Jerusalem,  who  reaped  a  ham^ful  of  the  first  ripe 
com.  This  corn  was  then  carried  with  pomp  and  rejoicing 
to  the  temple.  In  1  Cor.  xv,  20,  there  is  a  beautiful  allu- 
sion to  this  ceremony,  where  St.  Paul,  speaking  of  the 
resurrection  of  Christ,  is  inspired  from  thence  to  prove  the 
certainty  of  the  general  resurrection.  "  Now  is  Christ  risen 
from  the  dead,  and  is  become  the  first-fruits  of  them  that 
slept."  The  first-fruits  being  reaped,  and  solemnly  pre- 
sented in  the  temple,  clearly  proved  that  there  was  a  har- 
vest ready  to  be  reaped ;  so  a  risen  Saviour  proves  that 
there  is  a  resurrection,  and  at  the  appointed  time  and  order 
all  shall  be  raised  up. 

The  tenths  were  a  further  contribution,  under  the  theo- 
cracy, a  fixed  amount  given  for  the  support  of  that  govern- 
ment, and  were  generally  collected  from  all  the  fruits  of 
the  earth,  but  were  chiefly  composed  of  com,  wine,  and  oil. 
Lev.  xxvii,  30;  Deut.  xiv,  22,  23;  Num.  xviii,  21;  Neh. 
xiii,  5,  10.  These  were  tendered  every  year,  according  to 
their  produce,  and  given  to  the  Levites  in  their  cities,  but 
not  in  the  Sabbatical  year,  which  was  a  year  of  rest.  The 
owner  also  gave  a  second  tithe,  which  was  carried  up  to 
Jemsalem  and  eaten  in  the  temple.  Here  let  the  reader 
pause  a  moment,  and  reflect  on  the  directions  given  to  re- 
17* 


394 


JEWISH    NATION. 


EASTERN    GLEANERS. 


ligious  inquirers  as  to  seeking  instruction  from  the  Levites, 
Deut.  xvii,  9. 

Although  the  Levites  were  thus  employed  in  the  service 
of  God,  and  many  of  them  acted  as  judges  or  officers  of 
justice,  (2  Chron.  xix,  8,)  yet  the  time  of  the  whole  body 
was  not  so  fully  taken  up  as  that  of  the  descendants  of 
Aaron,  who  were  the  priests.  The  Levites  had  lands  ad- 
joining the  cities  allotted  to  them,  which  they  cultivated  in 
order  to  assist  their  maintenance ;  and  from  the  tithes  they 
received  they  paid  a  tenth  part  to  the  priests,  who  were 
supported  by  these  and  other  offerings. 

The  Israelites  also  paid  a  portion  to  the  poor,  Deut. 
xiv,  29  ;  xxvi,  12, 13  ;  and  the  perpetuity  of  this  obligation 
is  intimated  in  Scripture,  "  The  poor  ye  have  always  with 
you."  This  contribution  might  be  increased,  and  was  in 
some  degree  left  to  the  will  of  the  donor,  Deut.  xv,  10; 
Lev.  XX v,  35.  In  every  field,  a  corner  was  to  be  left  for 
the  needy.  Lev.  xix,  9,  10;  Deut.  xxiv,  19;  likewise  such 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  895 

ears  of  corn  or  other  produce  as  might  be  dropped — even 
sheaves  forgotten  were  to  be  left  for  them. 

The  interesting  history  of  Ruth  gleaning  in  the  fields  of 
Boaz  will  at  once  be  brought  to  the  mind  of  the  reader. 
Without  dwelling  on  the  minute  fanciful  interpretations  of 
some  authors,  it  may  be  remarked  that  the  time  of  harvest 
is  an  emblem  of  the  Gospel  day,  which  calls  for  earnest  and 
diligent  improvement,  Jer.  viii,  20 ;  Prov.  x,  5. 

The  field  tithes  generally  might  be  redeemed  by  the  ad- 
dition of  a  fifth  part  to  their  estimated  value,  Lev.  xxvii, 
32,  33 ;  but  all  substitution  of  the  tithes  of  the  cattle  was 
forbidden.  The  consciences  of  the  people,  as  T.  H.  Home 
says,  were  the  means  appointed  for  collecting  the  tithes. 
But,  in  later  years,  the  Pharisees  made  void  many  points  of 
the  law  which  referi*ed  to  judgment,  mercy,  and  faith,  even 
while  paying  scrupulously  their  tithes  of  garden  herb^,  mint, 
anise,  or  cummin.  But  the  Divine  law  must  be  taken  as  a 
whole,  or  else  we  say  and  do  not,  and  our  spirit  is  contrary 
to  that  of  our  Lord  and  Master.  The  payment  of  tenths 
was  prior  to  the  Jewish  polity ;  an  earlier  transaction  of 
this  kind  took  place  between  Abraham  and  Melchizedek, 
Gen.  xiv,  22.  Jacob  also  vowed  to  give  to  God  the  tenth 
of  all  that  he  might  acquire  in  Haran,  Gen.  xxviii,  22.  In 
chap.  XXXV,  14,  the  performance  of  this  vow  seems  to  be 
recorded,  but  not  the  precise  manner  in  which  it  was  ap- 
plied. Similar  customs  are  mentioned  by  Herodotus  and 
other  heathen  authors,  as  having  existed  in  Egypt  and  else- 
where, being  doubtless  of  patriarchal  origin. 

The  sacrifices  were  also  regarded  as  contributions,  1  Sam. 
i,  24  ;  ii,  29.  A  part  of  these  were  the  offerings  regularly 
required  by  the  law,  and  were  provided  by  the  whole  body 
of  the  nation,  but  others  were  brought  by  individuals.  These 
were  sometimes  expressions  of  repentance  and  acknowledg- 
ment for  off"enses,  both  voluntary  and  involuntary,  and  these 
stood  in  the  place  of  fines.  Others  expressed  joy  and 
thankfulness  for  mercies  received,  as  in  the  case  of  lepers, 
or  women  after  child-birth.  And  in  these  cases  they  were 
adapted  to  the  means  of  all  classes,  from  the  valuable  and 
costly  offerings  of  the  rich,  to  the  pigeons  or  handfuls  of 
flour  brought  by  the  poor,  Lev.  v,  7-11 ;  xii,  8. 

Although  the  revenue  of  the  theocracy  was  thus  provided, 
yet  the  erection  of  the  tabernacle,  and  afterwards  that  of 


896  JEWISH  NATION. 

the  temple,  was  furnished  by  free-will  offerings.  In  the 
first  case,  there  were  none  but  the  mass  of  the  people  to 
contribute,  yet  their  gifts  were  more  than  sufficient,  in 
the  latter  instance,  again,  the  people  came  forward  wil- 
lingly, 1  Chron.  xxix,  9.  Their  monarch  had  given  them 
an  example  of  liberality,  and  much  that  he  gave  was  the 
spoil  that  he  had  taken  from  the  enemies  of  the  Lord.  The 
chiefs  and  leaders  also  manifested  a  similar  spirit.  The 
reader  will  remember  the  mingled  feelings  of  joy  and  sor- 
row with  which  the  foundations  of  the  second  temple  were 
laid :  "  Many  of  the  priests  and  Levites,  and  chiefs  of  the 
fathers,  who  were  ancient  men,  that  had  seen  the  first  house, 
when  the  foundation  of  this  house  was  laid  before  their  eyes, 
wept  with  a  loud  voice ;  and  many  shouted  aloud  for  joy," 
Ezra  iii,  10-12;  likewise  the  difficulties  that  attended  its 
progress,  as  related  by  Ezra  and  Nehemiah,  with  the  en- 
couragement that  was  given  by  the  prophet  Haggai,  ii,  3. 
But  for  the  regular  requirements  of  the  ritual,  a  stated  pro- 
vision was  made. 

Other  payments  were  also  called  for.  Half  a  shekel  was 
required  from  every  male  of  twenty  years  old  and  upwards, 
when  the  census  or  number  of  the  children  of  Israel  was 
taken,  Exod.  xxx,  13  ;  xxxviii,  26.  It  was  but  a  small  sum, 
weighing  about  5  dwts.,  and  equal  to  28  cents  of  our  money ; 
but  it  is  supposed  to  have  been  the  sum  which  our  blessed 
Lord  paid  by  means  of  a  miracle,  Matt,  xvii,  27  ;  and  it  is 
possible  that  this  duty  was  neglected  by  David,  2  Sam.  xxiv. 

After  the  Babylonish  captivity,  (Neh.  x,  32,)  an  annual 
payment  was  made,  consisting  of  a  third  of  a  shekel ;  but, 
in  later  times,  the  law  of  Moses  was  strictly  enforced  on 
every  Jew,  whether  in  his  own  land  or  at  a  distance. 
Voluntary  offerings  were  also  made,  as  that  of  the  poor 
widow  who  brought  only  two  mites,  and  received  the  marked 
commendation  of  our  blessed  Lord,  Mark  xii,  44.  In  those 
days  the  money-changers  carried  on  considerable  traffic, 
perhaps  changing  Jewish  money  for  the  coins  of  Greek 
and  Roman  rulers,  even  within  the  inclosure  of  the  temple. 
Matt,  xxi,  12.  The  passing  money  which  had  been  coined  • 
by  heathen  sovereigns  was  considered  a  grievance.  Matt. 
xxii,  11.  In  a  former  period,  it  appears  from  Josephus, 
that  the  privilege  of  coining  money  was  highly  valued  by 
the  high  priest  Simon ;  nor  would  this  appear  strange  when 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  397 

it  is  remembered  that  the  Gentile  princes  frequently  marked 
their  money  with  titles  that  they  had  assumed,  which  were 
of  an  idolatrous  character. 

The  Jews,  in  modern  times,  have  been  remarkable  for  the 
readiness  with  which  they  have  contributed  to  the  support 
of  the  poor  of  their  own  people,  and  the  expenses  con- 
nected with  their  religious  institutions.  Poor  youths,  who 
are  students  of  the  Hebrew  law,  are  supplied  with  their 
maintenance,  as  a  free  gift,  from  the  families  in  the  neighbor- 
hood in  rotation,  if  they  are  more  numerous  than  wealthy, 
which  often  happens.  Many  other  charities  might  here  be 
dwelt  upon,  but,  alas !  the  motive  from  which  they  spring 
is  a  false  one.  The  Rabbinical  Jews,  like  the  Papists,  look 
upon  alms-deeds  as  meriting  the  favor  of  God  ;  and  the 
word  in  the  Old  Testament,  which  means  righteousness  or 
justice,  is  applied  by  them  to  acts  of  this  description,  Gen. 
xviii,  19.  All  the  Jews  settled  in  Palestine  at  the  present 
time,  except  a  very  few  who  have  property  of  their  own, 
are  supported  by  the  free  contributions  of  their  brethren. 

The  Jews  are  also  careful  to  settle  any  differences  or 
cases  of  discipline  among  tlie  members  of  their  own  body, 
as  far  as  it  is  possible,  by  the  officers  of  every  synagogue. 
When  these  efforts  fail,  the  offender  is  responsible  to  the 
public  magistrates  of  the  land  in  which  he  dwells,  and  must 
take  his  trial  hke  other  subjects ;  but,  in  most  cases,  the 
bonds  of  brotherly  union,  rather  than  those  of  restraint, 
form  a  sufficient  check  upon  their  conduct. 

In  the  early  days  of  the  Hebrews,  they  had  put  some  of 
the  Canaanites  under  tribute,  Josh,  xvi,  10 ;  xvii,  13  ; 
Judg.  i,  20,  33.  Other  imposts  were  laid  on  the  people  of 
Israel  by  the  authority  of  their  kings  ;  of  this  they  had  been 
warned.  David's  revenue  was  partly  gathered  from  tribu- 
tary nations,  2  Sam.  viii.  Of  Solomon's  there  is  a  more 
particular  account,  1  Kings  iv.  His  twelve  purveyorships, 
and  other  exactions,  probably  alienated  the  people,  though 
their  peaceful  state  increased  their  wealth.  Such  has  been 
the  case  in  other  lands  at  different  times.  In  their  more 
disastrous  times,  the  Jews  were  required  to  pay  tribute  to 
their  conquerors,  2  Kings  xxiii,  33  ;  xxiv,  13.  They  had 
been  forewarned  of  this  sad  change,  Deut.  xxviii,  12, 13,  44. 

Upon  their  return  from  Babylon  they  were  tributary  to 
Persia,  (Ezra  iv,  13,)  and  then  to  Syria,  until  they  gained 


398  JEWISH  NATION. 

liberty  for  a  wliile  under  the  Maccabees;  but  they  were 
again  subdued  by  the  Romans,  Luke  ii,  1-5.  Having  be- 
come a  Roman  province,  an  annual  sum  of  a  denarius,  as  a 
head  tax,  and  other  burdens,  as  land-taxes,  or  duties  on  the 
exporting  and  importing  of  goods,  were  exacted  from  them. 
These  were  paid  in  Roman  coin. 

Various  insurrections  arose  from  the  popular  discontent 
about  these  measures ;  two  of  which^  under  Theudas  and 
Judas  of  Galilee  are  mentioned  Acts  v,  36,  37.  The  Pha- 
risees objected  to  pay  taxes  to  a  heathen  government,  and 
thus  sought  to  make  themselves  popular,  w^hile  the  Hero- 
dians  supported  the  ruling  power ;  both  united  in  attempt- 
ing to  draw  our  Lord  into  a  difficulty,  and  he  wisely  framed 
his  answer  to  instruct  them  both.  Matt,  xxii,  21.  To  pre- 
vent his  professed  followers  from  being  drawn  aside  by 
either  of  these  errors,  both  Paul  and  Peter  inculcate  the 
paying  tribute  as  a  Christian  duty,  Rom.  xiii,  7 ;  1  Pet.  ii,  13. 
Under  whatever  government  the  true  believer  in  Jesus  lives, 
he  will  seek  to  lead  a  quiet  and  peaceable  life  in  all  godli- 
ness and  honesty.  This  is  required  both  in  the  Old  and 
New  Testament,  Ezra  vi,  10 ;  Jer.  xxix,  V ;  1  Tim.  ii,  1-5. 
There  is  nothing  in  the  Bible  which  encourages  anything 
like  opposition  to  the  civil  laws  under  which  we  hve,  and 
whatever  may  have  been  said  to  excuse  or  defend  unlawful 
attempts  after  gain,  as,  for  instance,  poaching  and  smug- 
gling, these  are  found  to  prepare  the  way  for  acts  of  still 
grosser  sin,  and  to  bring  on  the  ruin  and  disgrace  which  is 
ever  found  in  seeking  fellowship  with  the  ungodly.  Here 
may  be  applied  the  cautions  of  the  wise  man,  Prov.  i,  10 ; 
iv,  14 ;  xxiv,  21. 

The  taxes  imposed  by  the  Roman  government  were  col- 
lected by  the  publicans,  who  are  so  often  mentioned  in  the 
gospel  history,  as  in  Luke  iii,  12,  13.  In  many  cases,  their 
rapacity  made  them  hateful,  and  their  connection  with  the 
Gentile  rulers  made  them  infamous,  so  that  the  Pharisees 
refused  to  hold  any  intercourse  with  them,  Mark  ii,  15,  16  ; 
Luke  xviii,  10,  11.  These  opposite  characters,  one  the 
highest  in  the  pubHc  esteem,  the  other  the  lowest  and  most 
degraded,  are  contrasted  in  the  well-known  parable  spoken 
by  the  gracious  Saviour.  The  history  of  Zaccheus  will  also 
be  remembered,  Luke  xix,  1-10,  and  that  of  Matthew, 
Matt,  ix,  9. 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  899 

Tax-gatherers  are  never  popular.  In  the  East  they  are 
especially  hateful,  and  in  many  instances,  this  may  be  traced 
to  their  unjust  oppressions.  Forbes  has  given  a  lively  pic- 
ture of  the  distress  that  prevailed  in  a  district  of  Hindostan, 
where  the  men  of  each  class  in  society  tried  to  enrich  them- 
selves at  the  expense  of  those  below  them,  and  the  little 
farmers  Avho  plundered  the  peasants  were  in  their  turn 
seized  by  the  superior  rulers.  In  lands  like  these,  the  words 
of  Prov.  xxviii,  3  may  be  applied, — 

"  A  poor  man  that  oppresseth  the  poor 
Is  like  a  sweeping  rain  which  leaveth  no  food." 

The  same  writer  also  alludes  to  the  heavy  burdens  ex- 
torted as  gifts  from  the  distressed  peasantry,  both  in  India 
and  in  the  Turkish  empire,  where  poultry,  butter,  fruit,  and 
vegetables  are  required  in  abundance,  without  payment,  by 
the  officers  of  princes,  from  those  who  are  scarcely  able  to 
supply  themselves  with  the  common  necessaries  of  hfe. 


CHAPTER  XVIII. 

SECTS  AND  ORDERS  OF  MEN. 

After  the  spirit  of  prophecy  ceased,  various  religious 
sects  sprang  up  among  the  Jews.  The  most  important 
was  the  sect  of  the  Pharisees,  so  called  from  their  pre- 
tending to  more  than  ordinary  sanctity  and  strictness  in  re- 
ligion. This,  for  the  most  part,  was  but  outward  show,  as 
is  evident  from  the  words  of  our  Lord,  Matt,  xxiii,  25-28, 
where  he  compares  the  Pharisees  to  whited  sepulchres,  and 
expressly  says,  "  Ye  outwardly  appear  righteous  unto  men, 
but  within  ye  are  full  of  hypocrisy  and  iniquity."  Josephus 
describes  the  Pharisees  as  assuming  to  be  more  pious  and 
devout  than  others,  and  to  interpret  the  law  with  greater 
accuracy.  The  precise  date  of  the  origin  of  this  sect  is  not 
known,  but  the  Pharisees  soon  obtained  vast  reputation  and 
power.  About  eighty  years  before  Christ,  king  Alexander 
Janneus,  when  on  his  death-bed,  advised  his  wife  to  conci- 
liate the  Pharisees,  since  that  would  be  the  way  to  secure 
the  affections  of  the  nation  for  herself  and  her  children  ;  for 


400 


JEWISH  NATION. 


SCRIBES    ANT)   PHARISEES. 


whether  they  spoke  truly  or  falsely,  or  reported  good  or  evil 
of  any  one,  they  would  be  behoved  by  the  people.  She 
followed  his  advice,  and  the  Pharisees  supported  her  autho- 
rity and  interest.  The  influence  they  possessed,  and  even 
the  censures  passed  upon  them  by  our  blessed  Lord,  show 
that  they  were  outwardly  what  would  be  called  respect- 
able and  devout  characters,  commanding  respect  by  their 
profession  and  general  demeanor.  The  words  of  our  Lord 
to  his  disciples  were,  that  their  righteousness  must  exceed 
(surpass)  that  of  the  Pharisees.  The  appellation  was  then 
accounted  honorable  ;  it  was  a  sort  of  proverbial  saying, 
that  if  but  two  persons  entered  heaven,  one  of  them  would 
be  a  Pharisee. 

The  main  feature  of  their  errors  was,  that  they  set  up 
what  they  called  the  traditions  of  the  elders,  and  repre- 
sented them  to  be  of  the  same  authority  as  the  Divine  law ; 
thus  in  reality  making  the  commandment  of  God  of  none 
effect  by  their  traditions,  as  our  Lord  declared.  Matt,  xv,  6. 
By  explaining  the  law  according  to  these  traditions,  they 
easily  perverted  it  to  their  own  views,  although  directly 
opposed  to  the  Divine  will.     This  is  fully  exemplified  by 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  401 

their  rules  respecting  the  Sabbath,  already  noticed.  These 
traditions  were  not  regularly  committed  to  writing  till  the 
second  century  after  Christ,  when  they  were  embodied  in 
the  work  called  the  Mishna,  from  which  several  quotations 
have  been  before  made. 

The  Pharisees,  in  effect,  placed  the  whole  of  rehgion  in 
outward  ceremonial  observances,  and  had  no  desire  for  that 
purity  of  heart,  without  which  none  shall  see  God,  Matt. 
V,  8.  They  indulged  in  pride  and  malice,  and  all  sorts  of 
spiritual  wickedness ;  this  often  naturally  led  to  secret 
hcentiousness  in  practice.  A  striking  proof  is  recorded, 
John  viii,  9  ;  every  one  of  the  Pharisaical  accusers  became 
a  self-condemned  criminal,  on  hearing  the  heart-searching 
appeal  of  our  blessed  Lord.  Their  outward  displays  of 
piety  and  charity  were  literally  what  our  Lord  condemns  ; 
they  prayed  standing  at  the  corners  where  streets  met, 
and  where  they  might  be  observed  by  the  passengers  in 
each ;  and  they  caused  trumpets  to  be  sounded  to  give 
pubhc  notice  of  the  distribution  of  their  alms.  Matt,  vi,  2-5. 

In  their  dress  the  Pharisees  also  affected  many  pecu- 
liarities. The  phylacteries,  or  pieces  of  parchment  with 
texts  inscribed  thereon,  worn  upon  their  foreheads,  or  on 
their  arms,  were  made  broader  than  among  the  other  Jews. 
This  practice  was  founded  upon  a  mistaken  literal  interpre- 
tation of  Deut.  vi,  8,  which  directs  to  bind  the  law  for  a 
sign  on  their  hands,  and  to  let  it  be  as  frontlets  betwixt 
their  eyes  ;  evidently  a  metaphorical  charge  to  remember 
the  Divine  word,  and  to  meditate  thereon.  They  also 
enlarged  the  borders  of  their  garments.  Matt,  xxviii,  5  ; 
they  made  the  fringes  or  tassels  particularly  large.  These 
fringes  the  Jews  were  commanded  to  wear,  to  distinguish 
them  from  other  nations.  Num.  xv,  38,  39.  One  of  their 
rabbis,  in  commenting  upon  this  passage,  says,  "  When 
any  man  is  clothed  with  a  fringe,  and  goeth  out  therewith 
to  the  door  of  his  habitation,  he  is  safe ;  God  rejoices,  the 
destroying  angel  departs,  and  that  man  shall  be  secured 
from  all  hurt  and  destruction !"  This  may  suffice  as  a 
specimen  of  the  lying  glosses  and  traditions  of  the  Pha- 
risees. Many  others  of  a  similar  kind  are  related  by 
Lightfoot  and  Gill.  It  is  unnecessary  to  enlarge  upon  the 
errors  and  blasphemies  of  this  sect.  We  can  easily  con- 
ceive that  such  men  must  have  been  opposed  to  our  Lord 


402  JEWISH  NATION. 

and  his  doctrines.  They  disapproved  of  the  religion  of  the 
heart  taught  by  our  Lord,  on  account  of  the  spirituaUty  of 
its  nature,  the  universahty  of  its  requirements,  and  the 
purity  of  its  principles.  Having  set  their  carnal  hearts 
upon  worldly  glory  and  temporal  deliverance,  they  scorned 
the  miracles  and  doctrines  which  were  directed  to  the 
healing  of  the  bodies  and  souls  of  men,  and  they  ceased 
not  to  persecute  the  Messiah,  till  they  brought  him  before 
their  sanhedrim,  and  upon  false  evidence  condemned  him 
as  an  impostor  and  blasphemer. 

One  extreme  commonly  leads  to  the  opposite  ;  those  who 
fall  into  either,  often  equally  depart  from  the  truth.  Thus 
the  Sadducees  were  as  careless  and  profligate  in  their  out- 
ward conduct  as  the  Pharisees  were  over-strict.  They 
equally  rejected  the  pure,  self-denying  doctrines  of  Christ, 
and  joined  their  enemies,  the  Pharisees,  in  persecuting  and 
putting  to  death  the  Lord  of  life  and  glory.  Our  Lord 
cautioned  his  disciples  equally  against  the  doctrines  of 
both,  Matt,  xvi,  6-12.  The  Sadducees,  like  many  other 
sects,  owed  their  origin  to  a  perversion  of  that  which  is 
right  and  good.  Sochaeus,  a  man  of  authority,  about  250 
years  before  Christ,  impressed  upon  the  minds  of  his  scho- 
lars, that  they  should  serve  God  purely  from  love  and 
gratitude  to  him,  not  from  an  interested  desire  of  reward, 
or  a  servile  dread  of  punishment.  One  of  his  followers, 
named  Sadoc,  not  rightly  understanding  this  doctrine, 
taught  that  there  was  no  future  state  of  rewards  and  pun- 
ishments. The  Sadducees  in  the  time  of  our  Saviour  were 
not  a  numerous  sect,  but  they  were  rich  and  powerful. 
Their  tenets  were,  in  effect,  those  of  the  careless  worldhngs 
of  every  age,  seeking  after  present  pleasures  by  indulging 
the  lusts  of  the  flesh,  and  driving  away  the  thoughts  of 
eternity.  Yes :  there  is  many  a  Christian  Sadducee  !  We 
need  not  go  far  to  find  those  who  deny  Christ  by  their 
works  and  doctrines,  while  they  call  themselves  by  his 
name ;  to  say  nothing  of  the  sensual  and  bigoted  infidel, 
who  is  a  Sadducee  in  doctrine  as  well  as  in  practice.  The 
Sadducees  much  resembled  the  heathen  epicurean  philoso- 
phers. They  joined  the  Pharisees  in  rejecting  the  spiritual 
kingdom  of  our  Lord,  because  they  desired  to  share  the 
worldly  glory  of  an  earthly  monarch.  They  did  not  believe 
in  the  resurrection,  nor  in  the  separate  existence  of  the  soul ; 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  403 

they  contended  for  free-will,  so  as  to  deny  any  particular 
interference  of  Divine  providence.  We  need  not  further 
notice  their  impious  blasphemies. 

The  Herodians  were  a  political  rather  than  a  religious 
party.  They  were  so  called  because  they  were  wilHng  to 
agree  with  Herod,  in  submitting  to  a  foreign  and  heathen 
power,  and  in  some  respects  to  adopt  heathen  customs  and 
idolatrous  practices.  By  the  "leaven  of  Herod,"  (Mark 
viii,  15,)  probably  is  intended  a  willingness,  from  worldly 
policy,  to  participate  in  anything  wrong.  This  party,  it  is 
supposed,  were  mostly  Sadducees. 

The  EssENEs  are  not  directly  named  in  the  New  Testa- 
ment, but  are  thought  to  be  referred  to  in  some  passages, 
as  Col.  ii,  18-23,  and  are  noticed  by  Philo  and  by  Josephus. 
They  were  free  both  from  the  hypocrisy  of  the  Pharisees 
and  the  open  profligacy  of  the  Sadducees.  They  rejected 
the  traditions,  and  were  more  strict  as  to  moral  conduct 
than  as  to  ceremonial  observances.  They  offered  gifts  at 
the  temple,  but  not  saciifices.  They  lived  in  a  state  of 
equality,  and  only  followed  agriculture,  or  such  mechanical 
arts  as  were  of  a  peaceful  nature.  None  of  them  would  be 
concerned  in  acts  of  violence  or  warfare,  nor  would  they 
make  weapons  of  war.  But  these  laudable  and  good  prin- 
ciples were  carried  out  into  a  blamable  austerity ;  and  their 
doctrines  were  mixed  with  many  superstitions,  which  are 
reproved  by  the  apostle  in  the  passage  above-mentioned. 
They  also  were  imbued  with  spiritual  pride,  though  of  a 
different  character  from  that  of  the  Pharisees.  The  Thera- 
peutee  were  a  branch  of  the  Essenes,  who  resided  in  Egypt, 
and  were  still  more  rigid  in  their  observances,  strictly  avoid- 
ing intercourse  with  other  men. 

The  Scribes  were  an  order  of  learned  men.  The  name 
is  not  that  of  a  sect,  but  of  an  office.  They  were  of  the 
tribe  of  Levi,  and  their  professed  business  was  to  write 
copies  of  the  law.  But  it  is  thought  that  some  scribes  for 
civil  purposes  were  of  other  tribes,  mostly  of  Simeon.  Be- 
fore the  invention  of  printing,  the  employment  of  a  scribe 
was  honorable  and  profitable.  The  scribes  were  also  ex- 
positors of  the  law.  When  prophecy  had  ceased,  they  took 
upon  themselves  to  interpret  difficulties  in  the  sacred  books. 
Hence  they  assumed  considerable  authority,  and  possessed 
great  power  in  a  nation  still  professing  to  be  regulated  ac- 


404  JEWISH  NATION. 

cording  to  the  letter  of  the  Divine  law.  Our  Lord  includes 
them  with  the  Pharisees,  (Matt,  xxiii,  2,)  as  sitting  in  Mo- 
ses' seat,  assuming  the  authority  of  the  legislator  to  them- 
selves, but  binding  heavy  burdens,  and  laying  them  on 
men's  shoulders,  teaching  the  commandments  of  men,  jang- 
ling and  disputing  about  verbal  interpretations  and  trivial 
matters,  instead  of  explaining  and  urging  the  Divine  pre- 
cepts. 

The  office  of  scribe  among  the  modern  Jews  is  important. 
As  the  copies  of  the  Scriptures  used  in  their  public  wor- 
ship must  be  written,  not  printed,  there  is  employment  for 
them ;  and  the  following  account  of  one  of  these  copyists, 
by  Henderson,  shows  the  absurd  and  superstitious  obser- 
vances required  to  be  practiced  by  these  men ;  which,  under 
pretense  of  preserving  accuracy,  and  promoting  respect  to 
the  Divine  word,  has  done  much  to  prevent  its  circulation. 
While  at  Dubno,  in  Russia,  Dr.  Henderson  wished  to  ob- 
tain some  Hebrew  manuscripts,  and  was  conducted  to  the 
house  of  a  sepher  or  scribe.  On  the  table  before  him  was 
an  open  roll,  from  which  he  was  copying ;  parchment  and 
writing  implements  were  lying  about.  He  gave  a  minute 
account  of  the  rules  he  was  required  to  observe,  which  are 
the  same  now  as  1,300  years  ago,  when  they  were  pre- 
scribed in  the  Talmud.  The  skins  used  must  be  those  of 
clean  animals,  and  prepared  only  by  Jews.  When  cut  even, 
and  sewed  together  by  thongs  of  the  same  material,  they 
are  divided  into  columns,  the  breadth  of  which  must  not 
exceed  half  their  length.  Before  the  scribe  begins,  and 
after  every  interruption,  he  must  compose  his  mind,  that 
he  may  write  under  a  due  impression  of  the  sanctity  of  the 
words  he  is  transcribing.  He  must  copy  with  the  utmost 
exactness;  if  any  letter  be  wrongly  placed,  or  wrongly 
shaped  in  the  original,  he  must  copy  the  blunder.  Any  of 
his  faults  may  be  corrected  if  amended  within  thirty  days, 
but  not  afterwards ;  if  altered  subsequently,  the  copy  is 
stigmatized  as  "posel,"or  forbidden.  When  writing  the 
name  of  Jehovah,  the  scribe  must  not  leave  off  till  it  is 
finished,  even  though  a  king  should  enter  the  room,  nor 
may  he  begin  it  with  a  fresh  dip  of  ink ;  he  must  supply  his 
pen  when  writing  the  first  letter  of  the  preceding  word. 
This  scribe  exhibited  the  nppearance  of  a  man  worn  down 
by  the  observance  of  these  and  other  minute  rules.     For  a 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  405 

copy  of  the  law  written  fairly,  he  asked  about  ten  pounds. 
To  the  intrinsic  value  and  spiritual  beauty  of  the  law  of  the 
Lord  he  appeared  totally  insensible.  The  outward  beauty 
of  these  transcripts  of  the  Pentateuch  sometimes  is  very 
great:  the  letters  appear  as  uniform  and  regular  as  if 
printed ;  and  this  exactness,  though  carried  to  such  an  ex- 
tent as  often  to  be  frivolous,  has  been  the  means  of  keep- 
ing the  Divine  law  pure  and  unaltered  through  more  than 
thirty  centuries. 

The  Lawyers  and  Doctors  of  the  Law  were  the  same 
as  the  scribes.  The  titles,  Rab,  Rabbi,  or  Rabban,  signified 
great,  or  master,  and  were  given  to  learned  men  among 
the  Jews.  In  later  times,  they  were  conferred  as  degrees 
are  in  our  universities,  and  with  much  ceremony.  A  key  was 
delivered  as  a  symbol  of  the  power  and  authority  conferred, 
and  the  rabbi  wore  it  as  a  badge  of  this  honor  ;  also  a  book 
of  tablets  was  given  to  him,  symbolical  of  diligence  in  his 
studies.  Rabban  was  the  highest  of  these  titles :  it  was 
regularly  ascribed  to  only  seven  of  the  principal  Jewish 
doctors,  one  of  whom  was  Gamaliel.  Rabboni,  the  title  by 
which  Mary  called  our  risen  Lord,  (John  xx,  16,)  signified 
the  same.  To  omit  the  title  of  rabbi,  was  the  grossest  af- 
front to  any  one  on  whom  it  had  been  conferred.  Our 
Lord  forbade  his  disciples  to  use  it,  that  they  might  not 
assume  to  themselves  power  over  the  consciences  of  men, 
or  set  up  for  infallible  guides,  Matt,  xxiii,  8. 

The  Rulers  were  chief  priests,  and  of  course  from  the 
tribe  of  Levi.     The  Elders  were  chiefs  of  other  tribes. 

The  Samaritans  were  a  sect  or  division  of  the  Israelites, 
formed  by  the  union  of  the  idolatrous  colonies,  planted  in 
Israel  by  the  Assyrian  conquerors,  with  the  inhabitants  of 
the  land.  See  2  Kings  xvii,  24-41,  where  their  origin,  as 
well  as  the  idols  they  worshiped,  are  particularly  mentioned. 
After  the  captivity,  Nehemiah  began  a  reform,  see  chap,  v, 
when  some  of  the  Jews,  who  had  married  heathen  wives, 
went  to  the  Samaritans  and  settled  among  them.  One  of 
these  was  Manasseh,  a  son  of  the  high  priest,  who  per- 
suaded the  Samaritans  to  renounce  many  of  their  idolatries, 
and  built  a  temple  on  Mount  Gerizim,  where  rites  were 
celebrated  resembling  the  worship  at  Jerusalem.  In  the 
days  of  our  Lord,  the  hatred  between  the  Jews  and  Sama- 
ritans was  at  its  height.     They  had  no  dealings  with  each 


406  JEWISH  NATION. 

other,  John  iv,  9.  They  opposed  each  other  when  passing 
through  their  respective  countries,  (Luke  ix,  52,  53,)  and 
the  title  of  "  Samaritan  "  was  applied  to  our  Lord  by  the 
Jews,  as  including  or  implying  all  that  was  bad,  John 
viii,  48, 

The  Galileans  were  a  political  faction  in  Galilee,  who 
resisted  the  Roman  power,  and  sought  religious  liberty  by 
force  of  arms,  in  the  time  of  Augustus.  The  Zealots  and 
SicARii,  or  murderers,  (Acts  xxi,  38,)  were  similar  bodies 
of  political  enthusiasts,  shortly  before  the  destruction  of 
Jerusalem. 

The  Karaites  are  a  sect  among  the  modem  Jews  who 
require  particular  notice.  They  reject  the  vain  traditions 
of  the  Pharisees,  and  aim  at  keeping  closely  to  the  letter  of 
the  Mosaic  law.  Some  writers  think  that  they  existed  in  the 
time  of  our  Lord,  and  that  the  scribe  mentioned  Mark  xii,  28, 
was  of  this  class.  The  Scottish  missionaries  to  the  Jews,  in 
1839,  made  many  inquiries  respecting  these  Karaites,  and 
found  that  a  word  from  them  is  trusted  more  than  the  bond 
of  another  Jew.  Many  of  them  are  found  in  Turkey  and 
the  East,  and  a  colony  of  4,000  of  them  have  long  been 
settled  in  the  Russian  Crimea,  where  they  are  peaceably 
employed  in  agriculture.  It  is  said  that  they  have  no  en- 
mity to  the  followers  of  Jesus,  and  are  probably  descended 
from  some  of  the  ten  tribes,  who  took  no  part  in  the  cruci- 
fixion of  Christ.  Their  chief  rabbi,  or  priest,  is  always  con- 
sidered to  be  a  cohen,  that  is,  a  lineal  descendant  of  the 
house  of  Aaron.  On  one  occasion,  when  the  emperor  of 
Russia  wished  them  to  serve  as  soldiers,  they  obtained  ex- 
emption, as  bemg  some  of  his  best  subjects,  to  whose  charge 
no  crime  had  been  laid  during  six  hundred  years.  In  Po- 
land it  is  said  that  no  Karaite  has  deserved  pimishment 
during  four  centuries.  Their  name,  which  means  textualists, 
was  at  first  a  term  of  reproach,  but  they  now  regard  it  as 
an  honor,  and  call  themselves  the  children  of  the  Bible. 


LAWS   AND   POLITY.  407 


CONCLUSION. 


The  laws  and  polity  of  the  Jewish  nation  show  the  wisdom, 
happiness,  and  safety  of  attending  to  the  Divine  commands  ; 
also  the  folly,  misery,  and  punishment  of  disobedience; 
and  thus  they  afford  a  lesson  to  every  individual,  family, 
and  community.  The  history  of  the  Jews,  since  their  dis- 
persion, as  well  as  their  present  condition,  adds  much  to 
the  impressiveness  of  the  admonition.  They  are  unable  to 
observe  the  first  part  of  the  ceremonial  law,  while  destitute 
of  a  temple  and  a  priesthood ;  yet,  not  discerning  the  more 
excellent  way,  (2  Cor.  iii,  15,)  and  obstinately  rejecting  the 
truth  as  it  is  in  Jesus,  they  still  keep  up  its  repulsive  and 
prohibitory  observances,  and  unite  with  them  many  vain 
traditions  and  commandments  of  men.  Yet  these  have 
been  made  the  means  of  preserving  them  as  a  distinct  and 
separate  people,  in  a  state  that  is  a  standing  miracle,  left 
in  mercy  to  convince  men  of  the  truth  of  Scripture,  and 
conveying  undeniable  outward  and  visible  evidence  to  all 
those  who  are  not  influenced  by  spiritual  considerations. 
This  is  the  more  remarkable,  as  every  tribe  among  their  op- 
pressors and  conquerors  has  long  since  mingled  with  the 
mass  of  nations ;  the  Jewgialone  exist  as  a  distinct  people, 
unchanged  in  their  habits,  and  the  Persians,  who  restored 
them  to  their  own  land,  still  continue  to  exist  as  a  nation. 
Thousands  and  millions  of  the  Jewish  race  have  from  time 
to  time  been  absorbed  among  the  Gentiles,  have  ceased  to 
be  Jews :  thus,  it  is  evident  that  the  separation  of  the  body 
of  the  people  is  owing  to  the  perpetual  interposition  of  the 
Divine  providence  in  fulfillment  of  the  prophecies  of  Scrip- 
ture, and  not  from  any  physical  or  natural  circumstances 
preventing  them  from  being  mixed  with  others,  when  t^eir 
distinguishing  customs  and  habits  as  a  people  are  laid 
aside.  Who  that  rightly  considers  this  fact,  can  for  a  mo- 
ment hesitate  to  give  full  credence  to  those  prophecies 
which  declare  the  happiness  of  this  people,  when  they  shall 
at  length  look  on  Him  whom  they  have  pierced  ? 

The  sufferings  of  the  Jews  as  a  nation,  through  many 
succeeding  centuries,  fully  show  that  the  word  of  God  is 
perfectly  true  and  faithful,  both  in  its  threatenings  and  its 


408  JEWISH    NATION. 

promises.  It  is  a  savor  of  death  unto  death,  or  of  life 
unto  life.  The  principles  by  which  the  Israelites  of  the 
present  day  are  actuated,  show  how  bhndly  those  err  who 
regard  only  the  letter  and  not  the  spirit  of  the  best  and 
wisest  institutions ;  and  how  speedily  the  first  must  be  mis- 
taken and  forsaken,  if  the  latter  be  not  kept  continually  in 
view,  while,  being  ignorant  of  the  righteousness  of  God,  they 
are  going  about  to  establish  their  own  righteousness.  Yet, 
the  Jewish  principles,  in  their  present  distorted  and  man- 
gled state,  retain  much  that  is  instructive,  much  that  is 
valuable ;  they  show  how  glorious  the  fabric  once  was  which 
now  is  so  great,  so  impressive,  even  in  its  ruins.  All  is  now 
cold  and  Ufeless,  like  some  ancient  time-worn  mansion, 
which  only  shows  what  its  former  glories  have  been  ;  the 
full  tide  of  life  which  once  animated  its  now  deserted  walls 
and  crumbling  towers,  has  been  withdrawn.  No  longer  it 
aflFords  a  refuge  for  the  wanderer,  a  shelter  for  the  helpless, 
a  defense  for  the  oppressed  ;  though  the  lines  of  its  outward 
walls  remain  the  same,  it  is  only  an  abode  for  wild  animals, 
a  dwelling-place  for  the  birds  and  beasts  of  the  field,  and 
even  the  noisome  and  unclean  remain  there  undisturbed : 
"  Zion  is  a  wilderness,  Jerusalem  a  desolation." 

Vitringa  has  truly  remarked,  "  In  the  land  of  Canaan, 
where  the  Israelites  dwelt,  as  in  the  land  and  garden  of  the 
Lord,  there  were  two  trees,  of  li^  and  death,  the  latter  of 
which  it  was  the  part  of  wisdom  to  shun.  Moses  declares 
(Deut.  XXX,  15)  that  he  had  set  before  them  good  and  evil, 
hfe  and  death.  The  cause  of  death  was  the  idolatry,  with 
its  carnal  delights  and  impure  lusts,  which  prevailed  among 
the  heathen  of  that  period.  To  these  the  mind  of  the 
Israelites  was  prone ;  and,  indeed,  the  impiety,  the  profane 
thoughts  of  God,  the  self-righteousness  derived  from  acts 
of  a  carnal  worship  of  God  under  the  old  dispensation, 
ancL  other  things  of  a  like  kind,  which  exposed  the  Israelites 
to  tne  danger  of  death,  bore  a  resemblance  to  the  tree  of 
death  or  of  knowledge,  which  things  were  opposed  to  a  tree 
of  life,  that  is,  a  compliance  in  faith  with  the  commands  of 
God,  such  a  compliance  proving  the  possession  of  life 
derived  from  Christ,  who  is  its  sole  author  under  every 
dispensation.  But  the  Israelites  stood  not  in  this  state  of 
prosperity  and  happiness ;  they  suffered  themselves  to  be 
seduced  by  the  devil,  first  into  the  practice  of  idolatry,  to- 


LAWS  AND  POLITY.  409 

gether  -with  the  filthy  superstitions  of  the  surrounding  hea- 
then, and  their  flagitious  practices,  all  which  were  gratifying 
to  the  flesh;  and  then  into  a  state  of  hypocritical  self- 
righteousness,  founded  on  privileges  and  works  of  a  carnal 
nature,  while  they  renounced  the  righteousness  of  God, 
and  Him  who  is  the  true  cause  of  eternal  life,  even  Christ 
Jesus.  They  were  therefore  cast  out,  by  the  avenging  hand 
of  God,  from  his  land,  and  deprived  of  those  privileges 
which  they  had  heretofore  enjoyed  in  the  land  of  Canaan. 

"  The  case  of  the  New  Testament  Church  is  much  the 
same.  The  whole  earth  (might  have)  become  a  paradise 
after  the  conversion  of  the  Gentiles  to  the  faith  of  Christ. 
The  desert  was  then  transformed  into  the  garden  of  the 
Lord.  In  that  garden,  Christ  Jesus  is  proposed  to  all  the 
posterity  of  Adam,  as  the  cause  of  life  to  all  who  believe  in 
him,  and  observe  his  commandments.  On  the  contrary,  the 
posterity  of  Adam  were  cautioned  to  abstain  from  the  fruit 
of  the  tree  of  death,  which  here  denotes,  in  the  first  place, 
those  carnal  pleasures  and  gratifications  which  are  inconsis- 
tent with  faith  in  Christ.  It  also  denotes  those  destructive 
heresies,  that  damnable  superstition,  the  idolatry  and  carnal 
worship  which,  contrary  to  the  very  nature  of  the  new 
dispensation,  were  introduced  into  the  Church  by  false 
prophets,  the  adversaries  of  the  true  kingdom  of  Christ, 
whom  we  are  accustomed  to  call  by  the  name  of  antichrist. 
Of  these,  whosoever  eateth  dies,  according  to  the  style  of 
Scripture,  the  second  death,  and  by  the  avenging  hand  of 
God  is  expelled  from  his  Paradise." 

As  a  conclusion  to  this  account  of  the  Law  and  Polity  of 
the  Jews,  a  few  remarks  from  the  pen  of  a  well-known 
Christian  minister  may  be  added,  concerning  the  connection 
between  the  Law  and  the  Gospel.  "  The  law  being  unal- 
terable, and  all  men  having  broken  it,  and  there  being  no 
provision  made  in  the  law  for  the  pardon  of  the  least  trans- 
gression, but  a  punishment  threatened  to  the  least,  they  are 
therefore  guilty  before  God.  The  gospel  sets  forth  to  the 
convinced  sinner,  salvation  from  guilt  and  punishment, 
by  giving  him  freely  as  perfect  a  righteousness  as  the  law 
demands.  It  invites  him  to  receive  the  righteousness  of 
Christ,  against  which  the  utmost  rigor  of  the  law  can 
make  no  objection,  because  it  is  the  righteousness  of  God, — 
a  divine,  infinite,  and  absolutely  perfect  righteousness. 
18 


410  JEWISH  NATION. 

When  this  righteousness  is  imputed  to  the  sinner,  he  is 
pardoned,  the  law  ceases  to  accuse,  conscience  no  longer 
condemns,  he  has  peace  with  God,  and  the  love  of  God 
reigns  in  his  heart.  With  respect  then  to  the  sinner,  justi- 
fication and  acceptance  before  God,  the  Law  and  the  Gos- 
pel ought  to  be  distinguished  in  these  respects. 

"  According  to  the  law,  salvation  is  by  works  ;  according 
to  the  gospel,  it  is  by  grace.  The  law  says,  Do  this ;  but 
the  gospel  says,  Beheve  this,  and  thou  shalt  be  saved. 

"  The  law  threatens  to  punish  the  sinner  for  the  first  of- 
fense ;  but  the  gospel  offers  him  pardon  for  many  oflfenses. 

"  The  law  leaves  him  under  guilt  and  condemnation ;  the 
gospel  invites  him  to  receive  pardon  and  salvation. 

"  The  law  sentences  him  to  death ;  the  gospel  offers  him 
justification  to  life.  By  the  law  he  is  a  guilty  sinner;  by 
the  gospel  he  may  be  made  a  glorious  saint.  If  he  die 
under  the  guilt  of  the  broken  law,  hell  will  be  his  everlast- 
ing portion ;  if  he  die  a  partaker  of  the  grace  of  the  gospel, 
heaven  will  be  his  eternal  inheritance. 

"  But  if  the  law  and  the  gospel  are  distinct  in  these  and 
several  other  respects,  some  persons  may  think  the  law  is 
totally  repealed  by  the  gospel :  for  they  cannot  see  where- 
fore serveth  the  law,  unless  it  be  to  justify  a  sinner.  The 
moral  law  is  unalterable.  It  cannot  change,  any  more  than 
God  can  change.  To  this  day  it  stands  in  full  force,  and 
not  one  tittle  is  repealed.  It  is  still  the  revelation  of  God's 
most  holy  mind  and  will  concerning  the  obedience  which 
he  requires  of  his  creatures.  And  if  they  disobey,  the  law 
immediately  passes  sentence  and  condemns  them  to  death. 
While  they  continue  careless  and  secure  in  sin,  they  consi- 
der not  the  law  as  the  ministration  of  death  and  condemna- 
tion, and  none  of  them  see  it  in  this  light  until  the  Holy 
Spirit  awakens  them.  It  is  by  his  preaching  of  the  law  to 
their  consciences,  that  they  are  alarmed  with  fearful  appre- 
hensions of  their  guilt  and  danger.  He  brings  them  to  see 
the  exceeding  sinfulness  of  sinning  against  the  holy,  just, 
and  good  law  of  God,  and  convinces  them  that  the  broken 
law  can  never  make  them  legally  righteous.  This  puts 
them  upon  seeking  such  a  righteousness  as  the  law  requires, 
and  disposes  them  to  receive  gladly  the  righteousness  of  the 
Lord  Christ,  for  he  is  now  the  end  of  the  law  for  righteous- 
ness to  every  one  that  believeth. 


LAWS  AND   POLITY.  411 

"  Thus  the  Holy  Spirit  convinces  sinners  that  the  law  is 
not  repealed  by  the  gospel,  and  when  he  gives  them  the 
righteousness  which  is  of  God  by  faith,  and  they  have  justi- 
fication to  life  freely  by  grace,  does  he  teach  them  to  make 
void  the  law  by  faith  ?  God  forbid  !  Yea,  they  estabhsh 
the  law,  for  they  consent  unto  it  that  it  is  good.  They 
delight  in  the  law  of  God  after  the  inward  man,  and  they 
keep  it  in  their  outward  hfe  and  conversation.  It  is  the 
rule  of  their  holy  walking.  They  are  free  from  the  law,  as 
to  its  condemning,  killing  power,  but  they  are  under  the 
law  to  Christ.  They  know  that  if  the  law  had  not  been 
unalterable,  and  of  indispensable  obligation,  Christ  had 
lived  and  died  in  vain.  And  he  did  not  come  to  give  his 
people  liberty  to  break  the  unalterable  law ;  that  would  be 
a  contradiction  in  terms  :  but  he  came  to  establish  the  law, 
by  restoring  its  honor  and  dignity,  by  his  obedience  to  its 
precepts,  and  his  suffering  its  pains  and  penalties,  and  then 
making  it  honorable  in  the  confession  of  convinced  sinners, 
and  in  the  lives  of  his  redeemed  people." 

Blessed  be  God,  that  this  way  of  recovery  is  provided 
for  transgressors  through  the  exceeding  love  of  our  Lord 
and  Saviour  Jesus  Christ  toward  man :  "  Not  by  works  of 
righteousness  which  we  have  done,  but  according  to  his 
mercy  he  saves  us,  by  the  washing  of  regeneration,  and 
renewing  of  the  Holy  Ghost,  which  he  has  shed  on  us 
abundantly  through  Jesus  Christ  our  Saviour,"  working  in 
us  those  good  fruits  which  are  well  pleasing  in  his  sight. 
How  grateful  should  we  be  for  the  clear  light  of  the  Scrip- 
tures, by  which  these  truths  are  made  mantfest  to  the  sinful 
children  of  Adam ! 


INDEX 


Adoption,  130. 

Adultery  forbidden,  337. 

Agriculture,  64. 

Altar  for  burnt-offerings,  160. 

Altar  for  incense,  162. 

Altar,  large,  built  under  Herod, 

173. 
Altars,  or  places  of  worship,  152. 
Amusements,  on  public,  120. 
Ark  of  the  Covenant,  162. 
Armies  of  the   Jews  described, 

390. 
Armor,  complete,  described,  387. 
Arts,  the  fine,  91. 
Astronomy,  95. 
Atonement,  the  great  day  of,  216. 

Beasts,  distinguished  as  clean  and 
unclean,  148,  293. 

Bible,  the  value  of,  141,276,  346. 

Birds'  nests,  the  dam  not  taken 
with,  346. 

Blasphemy  forbidden,  321. 

Blood,  the  eating  of,  forbidden, 
281. 

Bondage  in  Egypt,  deliverance 
from,  354. 

Books,  108. 

BoiTowed  articles,  laws  respect- 
ing, 341. 

Bottles,  20. 

Bread,  40. 

Buildings  for  public  worship,  236. 

Burial-places,  138. 

Burnt-offerings,  147. 

Canaan,  the  Israelites  settled  in, 

356. 
Candlestick,  the  Jewish,  118, 161. 
Carriages,  56. 
Captivity  in  Babylon,  referred  to, 

361. 
Cattle  and  Agriculture,  61. 


Ceremonial  law,  remarks  on  the, 

229  291. 
Children,  123,  130,  198. 
Cherethites  and  Pelethites,  390. 
Circumcision,  223. 
Commandments,    considered    in 

their  order,  320-346. 
Corban,     the     vow     respecting, 

302. 
Covenant    made   by    God   with 

Noah,  351,  381. 
with  Israel  as  a  nation. 


354. 

Covenants  between  different  par- 
ties, 382. 

Courts  of  justice  described,  366. 

Courts  of  the  Temple  described, 
168. 

Covetousness  forbidden  by  Grod, 
344. 

Creator,  the,  is  the  Sovereign 
Disposer  of  all  things,  350. 

Crucifixion,  a  Roman  punishment, 
378. 

Cultivation  of  the  land,  64. 

Cutting  asunder,  an  Eastern  pu- 
nishment, 378. 

Daily  service  of  the  temple,  195. 
Dancing,  117,  119. 
Dawn,  watching  for  the,  196. 
Dead  bodies,  customs  as  to,  134, 

226. 
Death,  inflicted  as  a  punishment, 

377. 
Debts,  laws  relating  to,  340. 
Dedication,  the  feast  of,  221. 
Depai'ted  spirits,  226. 
Dining  in  the  East,  48. 
Diseases  mentioned  in  Scripture, 

132. 
Doctors  of  the  law,  405. 
Dress  and  ornaments,  22. 


/ 


414 


INDEX. 


Dress  of  the  Jewish  priests,  191. 
Drink-offerings,  149,  206. 

Eating,  mode  of,  48. 

Elders   of  the  Jews,  who  they 

were,  356. 
Engraving,  29,  104. 
Essen  es,  a  Jewish  sect,  the,  403. 
Excommunication,  376. 
Expenses  of  government,  393. 

False  witness,  the  sin  of,  343. 
Fasts,  public  and  private,  249. 
Fathers,  the  authority  of,  331. 
Females,  treatment  of,  among  the 

Jews,  283,  364. 
Festivals,  the  three  Jewish,  207. 
Fire  from  heaven,  164. 
First-born  to  be  offered  to  God, 

393. 
First-fruits,  the  laws  respecting, 

212. 
Food,  40,  48,  69. 
Fortifications  of  Jerusalem,  385. 
Fringes  worn  by  the  Pharisees, 

235. 
Fuel,  44. 

Funerals,  Eastern,  134. 
Furniture,  18. 

Galileans,  a  political  faction,  406. 

Games,  ancient,  120. 

Garments  of  the  Jewish  priests, 
190. 

of  the  sexes  not  to  be 

changed,  298. 

Gate  of  the  city,  366. 

Gleaning,  laws  respecting,  395. 

Gospel,  the,  and  the  law,  con- 
trasted, 409. 

Harvest,  69. 

Heifer,  the  ashes  of  the,  227. 
Herod,  the  government  of,  363. 
Herodians,  their  character,  403. 
Hieroglyphics,  or  picture-writing, 

99. 
High  priest,  his  office  and  dignity, 

190. 
Hirelings  not  to  be  defrauded, 

284,  342. 
Holy  of  holies,  the,  162. 


Holy  place,  the,  161. 
Houses,  11. 

Idolatry,  92,  321,  324. 

of  the  Zabians,  the  most 


ancient,  298. 
Impurity  forbidden,  281. 
Inheritances,     laws     respecting, 

283. 
Ink,  111. 

Jews,  the  modem,  their  degraded 

state,  365. 
Jubilee,  the  year  of,  310. 
Judges,  the  appointment  of,  356. 
Justice,  the  administration  of,  366. 

Karaite  Jews,  settled  in  the  Cri- 
mea, 241,  406. 

Kids,  a  law  as  to  seething,  228, 
296. 

Kings,  the  appointment  of,  356. 

,  the  courts  of  Eastern  mon- 

archs  described,  360. 

Lamp,  the  Sabbath,  257. 
Lamps,  used  in  the  East,  19,  127. 
Land,  cultivation  of,  65. 
Laver,  the  brazen,  or  molten  sea, 

175. 
Law,  the  written,  102,  276. 
Law,  the,  is  not  repealed  by  the 

Gospel,  409. 
Laws  of  Britain,  remarks  upon, 

347.— Lawyers,  405. 
Leprosy,  laws  respecting,  228. 
Levites,  the,  185. 

Maccabees,  the    government  of, 

362. 
Magistrates  and  their  authority, 

331. 
Manslaughter,   laws    respecting, 

280,  333. 
Manufactures,  77. 
Marriages,  126. 
Masters  and  servants,  duties  of, 

288. 
Meat-offerings,  149,  205. 
Medicine,  132. 
Men-stealers,  the  punishment  of, 

339. 


INDEX. 


415 


Mercy-seat,  described,  162. 
Military  affairs,  385. 
Mishna,  the,  formation  of,  363. 
Moloch,  the  worship  of,  294. 
Money   used   among    the  Jews, 

85,  396. 
Moon,  the  new,  observance   of, 

261. 
Mosque  on  the  site  of  the  Jewish 

temple,  182. 
Mount  Moriah,  description  of,  166. 
Mountain,  the,  man  of,  his  office, 

199. 
Murder  punishable  with   death, 

333. 
Murder,  uncertain,  the  law  as  to, 

335- 
Music,  117,  197. 

Natural  history,  94. 

Oaths,  the  obligations  of,  383. 
Officers  among  the  Israelites,  356. 
Olives,  Mount  of,  75. 
Olympic  Games,  reference  to,  120. 

Parchment  used  for  writing,  110. 
Parents  and  children,  their  duties, 

326,  331. 
Passover,  the  Jewish,  described, 

209. 
Patriarchal  government,  351. 
Peace  between  different  nations, 

384. 
Peace-offerings  described,  204. 
Pentecost,  the  feast  of,  213. 
Perjury,  the  evils  of,  373,  383. 
Pharisees,  their  character,  400. 
Philosophy,  95. 
Phylacteries,  401. 
Physicians,  132. 
Picture-writing,  or  hieroglyphics, 

99. 
Pledges,    directions    respecting, 

284,  342. 
Ploughing,  66. 
Poetiy,  112. 

Polity  of  the  Jews,  the,  351. 
Poor  provided  for  by  the  Jewdsh 

law,  311,  340. 
Prayer  and  praise,  157,  232. 
Prisons  in  Eastern  lands,  375. 


Priests,  their  duties  and  dignities, 
188,  195. 

Prophets,  some  account  of  the, 
263. 

Psalms,  the  book  of,  i-eferred  to, 
114,  197. 

Public  worship,  or  synagogue  ser- 
vices, 234. 

Punishments,  capital^remarks  on, 
347. 


370. 


374. 


in  Eastern  nations, 

,  various  sorts  of,  374. 
Purifications,  laws  respecting,252, 

306. 
Purim,  or  lots,  the  feast  of,  221. 

Races,  ancient,  120. 

Records,  or  archives,  preserved  in 

Jerusalem,  369. 
Restitution  required,  339. 
Revenues  of  the  Jewish  elders, 

393. 
Rising,  early,  37. 
Rolls,  or  ancient  manuscripts,  108. 
Rulers  in  every  city,  356. 
,  the,  405. 


Sabbath,    laws   respecting,    255, 
327. 

,  the  observance  of,  97, 


255. 

Sabbatical  year,  the,  261,  308. 

Sacrifices,  143,  201. 

Sadducees,  402. 

Salt  offered  with  all  sacrifices, 
222. 

Salutations,  31. 

Samaritans,  405. 

Sanhedrim,  the  court  of  the,  363, 
367. 

Scape-goat,  the,  a  type  of  Christ, 
219. 

Schools,  123,  244. 

Scribes,  403. 

Sects  and  orders  of  men,  399. 

Seventy  elders  appointed,  367. 

Shepherds,  Eastern,  63. 

Shekinah,  the,  or  the  Divine  pre- 
sence, 164. 


416 


INDEX. 


89. 

Sicarii,  the,  406. 
Silk,  80. 

Sin-offerings  described,  203. 
Slaves,  83,  285,  290. 
Sowing,  67. 
Spiritual  worship,  232. 
Stealing  forbidden,  339. 
Streets,  16. 
Supper,  the  last,  2 1 1. 
Synagogue     punishments,     245, 
370. 


services,  238. 


Tabernacle,  the  Jewish,  155, 157. 

'  ,  utensils  of,  160. 

,  the  feast  of,  214. 

Table  with  the  show-bread,  161. 

Talmud,  the  Jewish,  404. 

Taxes  raised  among  the  Jews, 
398. 

Tax-gatherers  always  unpopular, 
399. 

Temple,  the,  built  by  Solomon, 
166,  172. 

,  rebuilt  by  Herod,  177. 

Tents,  9. 

Theft,  punishment  of,  339. 

Threshing,  70. 

Tiberias  the  seat  of  the  Jew- 
ish Council  in  modem  times, 
363. 

Time,  division  of,  96, 

Tithes  collected  among  the  Jews, 
395. 

Trades,  77,  87. 

Traveling,  85. 


Treaties  made  between  different 

nations,  379. 
Trumpets,  the  feast  of,  261. 
Tyre,  commerce  with,  86. 

Usury,  law  respecting,  340. 

Veil  of  the  temple,  the,  160. 

Vineyards,  72. 

Visiting,  34. 

Vitringa,  remarks  of,  408. 

Vows,  the  laws  relating  to,  301. 

Wars  of  the  Jewish  nation,  385. 

Washings  common  in  Eastern 
counti-ies,  51,  253. 

Washing  feet,  59,  395. 

Water  and  other  drink,  45. 

Water,  the  bitter,  ti'ial  by,  338. 

Weaving,  78. 

Weeks  obsei-ved  in  all  ages,  97. 

Weights  or  stones,  84. 

Widows,  their  causes  to  be  plead- 
ed, 370. 

Wine,  47,  73. 

Windows,  none  in  the  tabernacle, 
161. 

Witnesses,  laws  as  to,  344,  370. 

Word  of  God,  the  neglect  of  the, 
364. 

Worship  in  the  Jewish  syna- 
gogues, 236. 

Writmg,  the  art  of,  99. 

Written  law,  the,  102,  276. 

Zabians,  their  idolatry,  298. 
Zealots,  the,  mentioned,  406. 


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